ÿWPCò‚ àQÞàú¢áGN—ÐDó¹kÍ›HzF‡m¡ê/ää'(Òï`µÃï–çßÒ™¯êD¤¿ò«FH¹ãC(”î¥3é–ò®ËØ/K[Qêzˆ½?:êæN(ÊYANó† ¬·öc¥¯Fþrï`Îñ@‹Ûu|ÀZZMáµ2bìm>ä;KN4]?pèuóˆxb㣽|oÌüØN†|Ñ„ˆV› °xÒþ7¿Å–·Jߊ礢'#Éí5t«ek„µ›ÚòJ¡ß5™ÅS*>M «/ÇæBØÐž°½Z¶³íZ°#i$¿ÏšŠˆwÄ"CÑ¥³æ8ˆú)!òbMEèjkycS#af(J9*²!Zb¼Ø\p~Ça–fyÎx¸Û÷Û÷oÿC ›ŸjÌÞýuJ§ºÍ~ŠK«xÿÝùa›ª %xg+)Ã"X$À¾õ=©2÷úÖT!Õõ—ÏF|ÔLvž¼sE“Éð gº›"Uˆ=í¹òÜÉé{°ïíÔÉ›'r ðã}/ŨRæ&Xåí4|C‰Zùª,ì›IìUñ™°ècr\AÚ öíePãŽNûê|òŠì—‚|&éNRóFÏ»n65.n0ûMï‰ÏAŒÞÿ° ˆ¶U:ô' %.( 0£C4(”w( 0¢‚ ,[,2è-60OP1UŸ2Ëô3C¿6·;j¹=|#AUŸEÄôJk¸N#Pœ'QBÃV×ZZÜZæ6^µ`‘Ñcbfñi× kÏäm³nÅp˜Øq©puäwiýxzf|à}¸ï€à§…ú‡‡ÒŠPS$£”ÛǗ墘 ‡šr§›N5g¢2œ£óΤÁ¦Úܪ¶­Áº°h{²ã´Øú¶$Ò·öºÑý»+μ'ù¿ Ê?Ľɯ†É®ŸËÌMÎÍÐgæÐÏMÓöÔÃØ§ÕÙH|ÛyÄÜÝ=Þ'ßfAàͧçÙtèeMé+²í.Ýïƒ ñÄŽòrRôÄ÷sãøÇVûYý¯v<%ÏaY0̉2U G‡ ÔÎ „¢i&(»·.rs Ð`ãÌCê!]ù$ÌV'")Á²+»s,F.0¹t4l-6z™8r:…<œ=n³@!Cý8D5EJJI{”O¬Q»RµÌTÕVôVW„J[?Î\ _ ,aË8bÈe¶Ëepf•ñi†kÔŒl(`m€ˆoØqûàq°ÛrÞ‹u¯iyg|…~(Ä,ƒð„1 ‡3:ŠÄm‹¿1Žgð¢W“•ù”ÕŽ˜Íc™10Iaž¨ª¡R£{k¤ÿæ¦vå©h[«òî_µ±)³é=µ/&¶pU·4Å¿êùÀãÁÈöÂÔ¾Åa’ÆóÇXúÊŸR̲ñÎe£Ð ÓÖX/Ø"‡Ù©ÚdÀÞœ$àíÀâß­å)Œç`µé9íúNîHïfóÅmõR2ü\„ý)à  ß©åˆ Mm mº'¬7—ãzÂlE\±y Û†åa!xF#¾%òÃ(lµ+ú!1y3û”4®6]=86š9ÒÐ:|¢='?ÖE@A9BçTCG;DD‚EâÆHú¨N7¢OÙP èR@óS53UPhVÖ¸X!ŽY'¯ZjÖ[ö@_:6apbØvcSNdСfÜqg MhrViÈjÎÉm9—næÐoa¶ru31y0d|á”~äu…Y€†Þ0dŠß”‹`s‘ŠÓ“7]•“”—Í'™–ô›ÓŠŸÍ]¢½*¥<ç¨.#ªQ¬ÙQ­ü*®ù&¯“° ²±2½³ï´Œ¸“”¹'»Ú,¼2½28¿PjźË]ÙÍ6Ïñ;ÕŸ,ÖHËÙóÛQÜîWÝàEÞ%ßî+àáQ,ãÔ}äXQåw©æñ èÚëîëíèÙîýÁñ¾òÓóøÔôÌösÏ÷VBú˜û˜û%œü ÁÕÎí£6)ÆïÝ åä éÉ Ͳ ó r‡y¤¤ ¬8µÌíé¹V¢(ø"ú $+&E'ëK*µ6,bë,ÚM/õ'4º6õÖ9=Ë;Ã>>ØËA›£C8>FvI«xLþ#N !R3+U^X^XaYFðZÃ6\‹ù^½„a*AckeÖlfÕBgÄiØÛjV³k+ mÈ4n[ün!WrñxsÚiuÌCxny}{wƒ|ùúÊó‚,½ƒzé…×c‡‡:ˆ>ÁŠ ÿ‹qäyŽí]>J‘ˆ’u¥–˜Þ™™wšÛøŸ Ó ªê©\”«ûð® ë¯ö°×³WÛ³e2µ"—·ѹ¸Vй)à»/ ¾ý8Ç5Ë3PÌ׃ΉZÏÛãИ¾ÔnVÛâÄܦ¦ÞåLàÃ1áÇôáÇ»âf‚ã’èäÚzæyTèÃÍëÍì!]î~ðªŒõ±6÷Êçú.±ûÊß©ïÃ]²ÃÒÒ[¤ ÿ  Ó +í.4F¾z×8gÖv¹LÛ×à·ŽyŽ•!·¤"n[%1É&ú'É)ÍÜ*"©+Ë-Î/âè1!Ê2‡ë3_r7ôÑ8Å:!á;lA…nCLóD ?IÉ_Jp(L˜NaQÆþR‘ÄUmUXºÂY|[Å_dDbz¨cã"e€f…g:ˆi½ÂjËm$Jo2npü ryœsdu|yv%õwf{Ì€|ŒL²Ø€ÂŠ‚!L†m‡kìˆùW‹ PŒ†ZŽbà½B‘bÿ‘Éa“_*”‰•³–ÊC—Þ ˜Õë˜ãÀ™ £›ѰêžkŸ|¡Nƒ¢…Ñ£‡V¦`ݧù=©96«o¬Ùt®‹M¯Ëسh £´Ü ¾‰ç¾TpÀªÄÁ‡nÅÿõÈÊôɾÊ5×Ì ÎÆ)ÏÐïÐ!¿ÑàÓèÔEèÕ‡-×k´ØÚ<ÛËXÜ#Þj5ߟä¯å|ÎéJë3PìǃíˆJîÒïæéñÐÏô¯ŸöXNø¢¦ùHû¼Vü/þ$Aÿe΀>N|ŒêÉò 3» Úî È\IN¥±óƒ¤Ñ'_øW Êf!ï0#;%âZ&Ú<(ú*Å-$Õ.ù/1ù0p*2 š3 £6­7uÂ8!7;…X=?Ý>I@²eBDYEÀtF¾4IòJwMÅwOÊVØ·W¸X{GYÁÂZŃ[9H\]Ñ“^9d_ÓaKpb´»eÏoiR>jkU¤mŽùnʇpQq_rBgsΩvwwöxP zÊY|Ë#}îî}Ü~n­ì~ 04™#ÉÍN–‚^ ˜‚w¤‚4¨‚¼‚ m¾‚ BÕ‚2þ6X9`("Courier 12cpiX(ÿÿ$òòÚ  ÚÚ  Úóó ŠÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRobert€E.€May,€"John€A.€Ô_ÔQuitmanÔ_Ô€and€His€Slaves:€Ð ° ÐReconciling€Slave€Resistance€with€the€Ô_ÔProslaveryÔ_Ô€Defense,"Ð xÈ ÐòòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€46€(Nov.€1980):554;€Jurgen€Ô_ÔKuczynskiÔ_Ô,Ð @ ÐòòThe€Rise€of€the€Working€Classóó€(New€York,€1967),€p.€181,€quoted€inÐ X ÐEugene€D.€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Roll:€€The€World€the€SlavesÐ Ð  ÐMadeóó€(New€York:€€Vintage€Books,€Random€House,€1976),€p.€59;Ð ˜è ÐEdward€P.€Thompson,€òòThe€Making€of€the€English€Working€Classóó€(NewÐ ` ° ÐYork:€€Vintage€Books,€Random€House,€1966),€p.€231.(9!2ó~$¤¤Ý ƒ­¤T!ÝÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó QÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPeter€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Labor:€€American€Slavery€and€RussianÐ ° ÐSerfdomóó€(Cambridge,€MA:€€Belknap€Press,€Harvard€University€Press,Ð xÈ Ð1987),€p.€ix. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBeing€a€historian€of€both€American€labor€history€and€ofÐ ° ÐAfrican„American€slavery,€Herbert€Gutman€is€a€clear€exception.€Ð xÈ ÐAs€explained€below,€Genovese€in€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó€does€use€theÐ @ Ðinsights€of€E.P.€Thompson€on€work€discipline€when€analyzing€theÐ X Ðwork€ethic€of€the€slaves,€but€this€should€not€be€seen€as€typical. ,Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKenneth€M.€Stampp,€òòThe€Peculiar€Institution:€€Slavery€inÐ ° Ðthe€Ante„Bellum€Southóó€(New€York:€€Alfred€A.€Knopf,€1956),€p.€31. EÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJoseph€Arch,€òòJoseph€Arch€€The€Story€of€His€Lifeóó,€ed.Ð ° ÐCountess€of€Warwick€(London:€€Hutchinson€&€Co.,€1898),€pp.€376„Ð xÈ Ð377,€389. KÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓR.M.€Hartwell,€et€al,€òòEight€Essays€on€Industrialization€andÐ ° Ð'the€Condition€of€England'óó€(n.p.:€€Institute€of€Economic€Affairs,Ð xÈ Ð1972). ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPhyllis€Deane,€òòThe€First€Industrial€Revolutionóó,€(Cambridge:€Ð ° ÐCambridge€University€Press,€1979),€2d€ed.,€pp.€13,€22.€€OfÐ xÈ Ðcourse,€E.A.€Wrigley€and€R.S.€Schofield's€òòThe€Population€HistoryÐ @ Ðof€England€1541„1871óó€(Cambridge,€England:€€Cambridge€UniversityÐ X ÐPress,€1981)€has€revolutionized€the€subject€of€the€growth€of€theÐ Ð  ÐEnglish€population€during€the€eighteenth€century€by€ingeniouslyÐ ˜è Ðprojecting€backwards€from€the€1871€census. 9Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPlanter€Bennet€Barrow€noted€the€taking€of€the€"Cencus"€inÐ ° Ðhis€Diary€on€May€31,€1840:€€"Taking€the€Cencus€of€the€UnitedÐ xÈ ÐStates„„the€products,€cotten€€corn€€horses€€mules€€cattle€€Hogs€Ð @ æ Ðsheep€€Potatoes€€Poultry,€quantity€cloth€made,€Fodder€€hay."€Ð ° ÐEdwin€Adams€Davis,€òòPlantation€Life€in€the€Florida€Parishes€ofÐ xÈ ÐLouisiana,€1836„1846€as€Reflected€in€the€Diary€of€Bennet€H.Ð @ ÐBarrowóó,€Columbia€University€Studies€in€the€History€of€AmericanÐ X ÐAgriculture,€no.€9€(New€York:€€Columbia€University€Press,€1943),Ð Ð  Ðp.€197.€€All€sources€quoted€in€this€work€have€the€literalÐ ˜è Ðlanguage€retained,€regardless€of€what€grammatical€or€spellingÐ ` ° Ðoffenses€they€commit,€with€their€original€emphasis€kept,€unlessÐ ( x Ðotherwise€noted.€€ ­Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€conditions€in€Northumberland,€see€Great€Britain,Ð ° ÐParliament,€òòParliamentary€Papersóó€(Commons),€òò1867„68óó,€vol.€xvii,Ð xÈ ÐCommission€on€the€Employment€of€Children,€Young€Persons€and€WomenÐ @ Ðin€Agriculture,òòóó€first€report,€p.€xiv.€€The€British€ParliamentaryÐ X ÐSessional€Papers€are€hereafter€referred€to€as€òòBPPóó.€€This€reportÐ Ð  Ðitself€below€may€be€called€simply€"Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ˜è ÐAgriculture." `Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThis€emphasis€is€disputable,€especially€when€adoptingÐ ° ÐSnell's€approach€of€examining€what€the€poor€themselves€consideredÐ xÈ Ðimportant.€€Simply€put,€although€food€is€a€major€part€of€theÐ @ Ðmaterial€standard€of€living,€it€is€not€so€important€to€theÐ X Ðoverall€quality€of€life,€excluding€true€famine€conditions.€€TheÐ Ð  Ðdistinction€between€the€quality€of€life€and€the€standard€ofÐ ˜è Ðliving€is€developed€below.€€See€K.D.M.€Snell,€òòAnnals€of€theÐ ` ° ÐLabouring€Poor:€€Social€Change€and€Agrarian€England,€1660„1900óóÐ ( x Ð(Cambridge:€€Cambridge€University€Press,€1985),€pp.€9„14. rÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted€commented,€during€his€travels€in€eastern€TexasÐ ° Ðbefore€the€Civil€War:€€"The€meals€are€absolutely€invariable€.€.€.€Ð xÈ ÐThe€bread€is€made€of€corn„meal,€stirred€with€water€and€salt,€andÐ @ Ðbaked€in€a€kettle€covered€with€coals.€€The€corn€for€breakfast€isÐ X Ðfrequently€unhusked€at€sunrise.€.€.€.€Wheat€bread,€if€I€am€notÐ Ð  Ðmistaken,€we€met€with€but€twice,€out€of€Austin,€in€our€wholeÐ ˜è Ðjourney€across€the€State."€€Frederick€Law€Olmsted,€òòThe€CottonÐ ` ° ÐKingdom:€€A€Traveller's€Observations€on€Cotton€and€Slavery€in€theÐ ( x ÐAmerican€Slave€Statesóó,€2€vols.€(New€York:€€Mason€Brothers,€1861),Ð ð @ Ð1:368„69.€€While€visiting€Neu„Braunfels,€Texas,€he€found€no€wheatÐ ¸   Ðin€the€market.€€Frederick€Law€Olmsted,€òòThe€Slave€Statesóó,€ed.Ð € Ð  ÐHarvey€Wish€(New€York:€€Capricorn€Books,€1959),€p.€158. KÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBenjamin€Drew,€òòA€North„side€View€of€Slavery€€The€Refugee:€Ð ° Ðor€the€Narratives€of€Fugitive€Slaves€in€Canadaóó€(Boston:€€John€P.Ð xÈ ÐJewett€and€Co.,€1856;€reprint€ed.,€New€York:€€Johnson€Reprint,Ð @ Ð1968),€pp.€71,€381.€€Olmsted,€òòThe€Cotton€Kingdomóó,€2:109.€€SeeÐ X Ðalso€1:102€and€2:172,€241.€€Testifying€to€the€nearly€universalÐ Ð  Ðracism€of€whites,€North€or€South,€racial€slurs€are€quoted€whenÐ ˜è Ðfound€in€the€sources.€€B.A.€Botkin,€ed.,€òòLay€My€Burden€Down:€€AÐ ` ° ÐFolk€History€of€Slaveryóó€(Chicago:€€University€of€Chicago€Press,Ð ( x Ð1945),€p.€172;€€Frederick€Douglass,€òòNarrative€of€the€Life€ofÐ ð @ ÐFrederick€Douglass:€€An€American€Slave€€Written€by€Himselfóó€(1845;Ð ¸   Ðreprint€ed.,€New€York:€€New€American€Library/Penguin,€1968),€p.Ð € Ð  Ð28;€òòSlavery€in€the€United€States:€€A€Narrative€of€the€Life€andÐ H ˜  ÐAdventures€of€Charles€Ball,€a€Black€Manóó€(New€York:€€John€S.Ð `  ÐTaylor,€1837;€reprint€ed.,€New€York:€€Kraus€Reprint€Co.,€1969),Ð Ø(  Ðpp.€42„43. ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFurther€evidence€for€the€near€universality€of€theÐ ° Ð"standard€ration"€appears€in€Kenneth€F.€Kiple€and€Virginia€H.Ð xÈ ÐKiple,€"Black€Tongue€and€Black€Men:€€Pellagra€and€Slavery€in€theÐ @ ÐAntebellum€South,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó,€43€(Aug.€1977)Ð X Ð413,€n.€7;€Robert€William€Fogel€and€Stanley€L.€Engerman,€òòTime€onÐ Ð  Ðthe€Cross:€€The€Economics€of€American€Negro€Slaveryóó,€2€vols.Ð ˜è Ð(Boston:€€Little,€Brown€&€Co.,€1974),€1:110;€Richard€Sutch€inÐ ` ° ÐPaul€A.€David,€et€al.,€òòReckoning€with€Slavery:€€A€Critical€StudyÐ ( x æ Ðin€the€Quantitative€History€of€American€Negro€Slaveryóó€(New€York:€Ð ° ÐOxford€University€Press,€1976),€p.€235. aÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJohn€W.€Blassingame,€òòThe€Slave€Community:€€Plantation€LifeÐ ° Ðin€the€Antebellum€Southóó,€rev.€and€enl.€ed.€(New€York:€€OxfordÐ xÈ ÐUniversity€Press,€1979),€p.€254. úÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€172;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð131,€155. ’Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓLinda€Brent,€òòIncidents€in€the€Life€of€a€Slave€Girlóó€(1861;Ð ° Ðreprint€ed.,€San€Diego:€€Harvest/HBJ€Book,€Harcourt€BraceÐ xÈ ÐJovanovich,€Publishers,€1973),€p.€11.€€Because€of€its€ratherÐ @ Ðincredible€events€and€novelistic€"feel,"€this€narrative€has€hadÐ X Ðits€authenticity€questioned€in€years€past.€€But€more€recentlyÐ Ð  Ðexcellent€evidence€for€its€authenticity€has€appeared.€€See€JeanÐ ˜è ÐFagan€Yellin,€"Written€by€Herself:€€Harriet€Jacobs'€SlaveÐ ` ° ÐNarrative,"€òòAmerican€Literatureóó,€53€(Nov.€1981):479„86.€Ð ( x ÐNevertheless,€the€feel€of€a€morality€tale€still€hangs€over€it.€Ð ð @ ÐIt€tells€the€story€of€one€slaveholder€who€supposedly€on€hisÐ ¸   æ Ðdeathbed€shrieked,€"I€am€going€to€hell;€bury€my€money€with€me."€Ð ° ÐWhen€his€eyes€failed€to€close€after€his€death,€silver€dollarsÐ xÈ Ðwere€laid€on€them!€€This€"incident,"€which€she€did€not€personallyÐ @ Ðwitness,€sounds€suspiciously€like€what€this€master's€slavesÐ X Ðwished€and€felt€ought€to€have€happened€than€what€did€in€factÐ Ð  Ðhappen.€€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€46„47. 8Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ó"Compensated€undernutrition,"€the€dietetic€condition€inÐ ° Ðwhich€the€human€body€operates€at€a€lower€metabolic€rate€due€toÐ xÈ Ðmonths€or€years€of€low€caloric€intake,€may€also€explain€howÐ @ Ðslaves€lived€on€such€rations€without€great€physical€damage.€€SeeÐ X ÐDavid€Eltis,€"Nutritional€Trends€in€Africa€and€the€Americas:€Ð Ð  ÐHeights€of€Africans,€1819„1839,"€òòJournal€of€InterdisciplinaryÐ ˜è ÐHistoryóó,€12€(winter€1982):471.€€This€condition€still€makes€itsÐ ` ° Ðsufferers€less€energetic,€less€mentally€alert--and€more€easy€toÐ ( x Ðcontrol.€ ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:113. PÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSome€gathered€evidence€indicates€the€average€height€ofÐ ° ÐAmerican„born€slaves€was€greater€than€their€African€counterparts.€Ð xÈ ÐSee€Eltis,€"Nutritional€Trends,"òòóó€453„75.€€For€the€greater€naturalÐ @ Ðpopulation€growth€of€Southern€slaves€as€contrasted€with€thoseÐ X Ðelsewhere€in€the€Americas,€see€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€theÐ Ð  ÐCrossóó,€1:25„29.€€Frederick€Douglass€believed€"in€the€part€ofÐ ˜è ÐMaryland€from€which€I€came,€it€is€the€general€practice,--thoughÐ ` ° Ðthere€are€many€exceptions"€that€the€slaves€were€fed€enough.€Ð ( x ÐòòNarrativeóó,€p.€65. ÜÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:109„115;€RobertÐ ° ÐWilliam€Fogel€and€Stanley€L.€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Cross€Ð xÈ ÐEvidence€and€Methods„„A€Supplementóó€(Boston:€€Little,€Brown€&€Co.,Ð @ Ð1974),€2:90„99;€Richard€Sutch€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€pp.€231„283. «Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWilliam€D.€Piersen,€"White€Cannibals,€Black€Martyrs:€Ð ° ÐFear,€Depression,€and€Religious€Faith€as€Causes€of€Suicide€amongÐ xÈ ÐNew€Slaves,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó,€62€(Apr.€1977):153.€€HeÐ @ Ðalso€notes€that€clay€eating€could€be€used€to€feign€illness,€whichÐ X Ðsuddenly€makes€it€a€labor€discipline€issue.€€Fogel€and€EngermanÐ Ð  Ðcite€Twyman€in€denial€of€this€interpretation:€€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,Ð ˜è Ð2:99.€€But€Sutch€strongly€rebutts€their€claims€that€this€practiceÐ ` ° Ðdoes€not€occur€due€to€vitamin€deficiencies,€noting€theirÐ ( x Ðselective€quotation€of€Twyman.€€See€David,€òòReckoning€withÐ ð @ ÐSlaveryóó,€pp.€277„79,€n.€129. ‡Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKiple€and€Kiple,€"Black€Tongue,"òòóó€411„28;€Sutch€in€David,Ð ° ÐòòReckoningóó,€pp.€270„81.€€In€Fogel€and€Engerman's€defense,€however,Ð xÈ æ Ðit€should€be€noted€Eltis€found€a€nutritional€survey€of€Nigeria€ofÐ ° Ðthe€1960s€that€indicated€Africans€got€lower€amounts€of€riboflavinÐ xÈ Ðand€thiamine€than€Southern€slaves.€€They€also€had€lower€calorieÐ @ Ðand€protein€intakes.€€See€"Nutritional€Trendsòòóó,"€470. …Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€65;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€26,€120;€my€emphasis,€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:241;€FrancesÐ xÈ ÐAnn€Kemble,€òòJournal€of€a€Residence€on€a€Georgian€Plantation€inÐ @ Ð1838„1839óó€(New€York:€€Harper€&€Bros.,€Publishers,€1863),€p.€65;Ð X ÐSolomon€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€eds.€Sue€Eakin€and€JosephÐ Ð  ÐLogsdon€(1853;€reprint€ed.,€Baton€Rouge,€LA:€€Louisiana€StateÐ ˜è ÐUniversity€Press,€1968),€p.€153;€Brown€is€found€in€F.N.€Boney,Ð ` ° Ð"The€Blue€Lizard:€€Another€View€of€Nat€Turner's€Country€on€theÐ ( x ÐEve€of€Rebellion,"€òòPhylonóó,€31€(winter€1970):356. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú24Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€also€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€549;€Stampp,Ð ° ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€284„85. ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú25Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€18.€€Note€how€similar€Henderson'sÐ ° Ðexperience€was€to€what€household€servants€in€Georgia€Kemble€sawÐ xÈ Ðwho€had€"even€less€comfort€[than€field€hands],€in€one€respect,Ð @ Ðinasmuch€as€no€time€whatever€is€set€apart€for€their€meals,€whichÐ X æ Ðthey€snatch€at€any€hour€and€in€any€way€that€they€can--generally,Ð ° Ðhowever,€standing,€or€squatting€on€their€hams€round€the€kitchenÐ xÈ Ðfire."€€òòJournalóó,€p.€66;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€156. ÅÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú26Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€370. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú27Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€314;€Mary€Boykin€Chesnut,€òòA€Diary€fromÐ ° ÐDixieóó,€ed.€Ben€Ames€Williams€(Boston:€€Houghton€Mifflin€Co.,Ð xÈ Ð1949),€p.€24;€Orland€Kay€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€People:€€The€OldÐ @ ÐSlaves€Tell€Their€Storyóó€(Indianapolis:€€Bobbs„Merrill€Co.,€1931),Ð X Ðpp.€31,€109,€110. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú28Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDiana€C.€Crader,€"Slave€Diet€at€Monticello,"€òòAmericanÐ ° ÐAntiquityóó,€55€(Oct.€1990):€700. ŽÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú29Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEvidently,€the€habits€of€excessively€chopping€up€the€bonesÐ ° Ðaffected€even€the€master's€table€sometimes.€€Kemble€said€herÐ xÈ Ðslave€cook/butcher€had€such€"barbarous€ignorance"€that€sheÐ @ Ðchallenged€"the€most€expert€anatomist€to€pronounce€on€any€pieceÐ X æ Ð(joints€they€can€not€be€called)€of€mutton€brought€to€our€table€toÐ ° Ðwhat€part€of€the€animal€sheep€it€originally€belonged."€€HerÐ xÈ Ðeventual€solution€was€to€teach€him€how€to€butcher€it€properly,Ð @ Ðdemonstrating€on€the€carcass€of€what€her€cook€pronounced€"deÐ X Ðbeutifullest€sheep€de€missis€eber€saw."€€See€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.Ð Ð  Ð196„98. ŸÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú30Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCrader,€"Slave€Diet,"€698„703,€708„10,€713„15.€€JeffersonÐ ° Ðhad€distributed€the€largest€amounts€of€fish€to€various€moreÐ xÈ Ðfavored€slaves,€including€some€domestic€servants,€and€some€veryÐ @ Ðold€field€workers.€ ÚÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú31Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€90;€see€also€p.€84;Ð ° ÐNorthrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€p.€153;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€20,Ð xÈ Ð216;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€42;€Crader,€"Slave€Diet,"€p.€698.€Ð @ ÐSee€also€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€487„88. _Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú32Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€90,€121;òòóó€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ ° ÐKingdomóó,€2:238„39;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€409.€€See€also€pp.Ð xÈ Ð51„52.€€Barrow's€diary€entry€for€March€19,€1842,€p.€253€indicatesÐ @ Ðhe€let€them€have€their€own€pieces€of€land:€€"All€hands€repairingÐ X Ðtheir€Gardens;"€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€47„49;€John€Spencer€Bassett,Ð Ð  ÐòòThe€Southern€Plantation€Overseer€as€Revealed€in€His€LettersóóÐ ˜è Ð(Northampton,€MA:€€Smith€College,€1925),€p.€187.€€See€also€pp.Ð ` ° Ð203,€210€for€discussions€by€this€overseer€concerning€paying€herÐ ( x Ðslaves. pÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú33Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:241;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.Ð ° Ð66;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€278;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€134,€278;€Boney,Ð xÈ Ð"The€Blue€Lizard,"òòóó€356. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú34Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCrader,€"Slave€Diet,"€704„5;€for€Payne's€and€Cato'sÐ ° Ðtestimony€and€the€evidence€for€buttermilk,€see€Botkin,€òòLay€MyÐ xÈ ÐBurden€Downóó,€pp.€84,€112,€127,€147;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.Ð @ Ð409;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:320.€€Olmsted€spotted€while€inÐ X ÐMississippi€one€slave€woman€smoking€a€pipe!€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð Ð  Ð2:69;€òòóóBassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€25„27;€Stampp,€òòPeculiarÐ ˜è ÐInstitutionóó,€pp.€370„71.€€For€more€on€slave€theft,€see€pp.€338„40Ð ` ° Ðbelow. ®Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú35Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€regional€wage€variations,€see€John€L.€Rule,€òòTheÐ ° ÐLabouring€Classes€in€Early€Industrial€England,€1750„1850óó€(NewÐ xÈ ÐYork:€€Longman€Group,€1986),€p.€48,€and€the€frontispiece€of€JamesÐ @ ÐCaird,€òòEnglish€Agriculture€in€1850„51óó,€2d€ed.€(London:€€Longman,Ð X ÐBrown,€Green,€&€Longmans,€1852);€In€southern€Lancashire,€JamesÐ Ð  ÐCaird€(p.€284)€found€that€"native€labour€is€so€scarce€that€theÐ ˜è Ðfarmers€declare€they€could€not€get€on€at€all€without€the€aid€ofÐ ` ° Ðthe€Irish."€€See€also€pp.€511„13;€Thompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€219;Ð ( x ÐBrinley€Thomas,€"Escaping€from€Constraints:€€The€IndustrialÐ ð @ ÐRevolution€in€a€Malthusian€Context,"€òòJournal€of€InterdisciplinaryÐ ¸   ÐHistoryóó,€15€(spring€1985):€746;€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.Ð € Ð  Ð511.€€Brinley€cites€this€source,€but€how€he€derives€the€26Ð H ˜  Ðpercent€figure€remains€obscure. ÖÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú36Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€12;€The€rector€and€Conservative€wasÐ ° Ðin€the€òòTimesóó,€quoted€by€Frederick€Law€Olmsted,€òòThe€Walks€andÐ xÈ ÐTalks€of€an€American€Farmer€in€Englandóó€(1859;€reprint€ed.,€AnnÐ @ ÐArbor,€MI:€€University€of€Michigan€Press,€1967),€p.€243. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú37Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWilliam€Cobbett,€òòRural€Rides€in€the€Counties€of€Surrey,Ð ° ÐKent,€Sussex,€Hampshire,€Wiltshire,€Gloucestershire,Ð xÈ ÐHerefordshire,€Worcestershire,€Somersetshire,€Oxfordshire,Ð @ ÐBerkshire,€Essex,€Suffolk,€Norfolk,€and€Hertfordshireóó,€ed.€E.W.Ð X ÐMartin€(1830;€reprint€ed.,€London:€€MacDonald€&€Co.,€1958),€pp.Ð Ð  Ð110,€254„55,€276.€€Since€Cobbett€visited€areas€in€theÐ ˜è Ðeconomically€depressed€south,€what€he€witnessed€cannot€safely€beÐ ` ° Ðextrapolated€to€the€north€of€England. ÈÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú38Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓW.H.€Hudson,€òòA€Shepherd's€Life:€€Impressions€of€the€SouthÐ ° ÐWiltshire€Downsóó,€new€Am.€ed.€(New€York:€€E.P.€Dutton€&€Co.,Ð xÈ Ð1921),€p.€81;€Alexander€Somerville,€òòThe€Whistler€at€the€Ploughóó,Ð @ Ðed.€K.D.M.€Snell€(Manchester,€England:€€J.€Ainsworth,€1852;Ð X Ðreprint€ed.,€London,€Merlin€Press,€1989;€Fairfield,€NJ:€€AugustusÐ Ð  ÐKelley,€1989),€pp.€38,€75,€119,€264;€Olmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,Ð ˜è Ðpp.€243„44;€Great€Britain,€Parliament,òòóó€òòBPPóó,€1837,€vol.€xvii,Ð ` ° ÐReports€from€the€Select€Committee€to€Inquire€into€theÐ ( x ÐAdministration€of€the€Relief€of€the€Poor€under€the€Provisions€ofÐ ð @ Ðthe€Poor€Law€Amendment€Act€with€Minutes€of€Evidence€andÐ ¸   ÐAppendices,€part€1,€òòóósecond€report,€pp.€3,€7„8,€14„15.€€Below,Ð € Ð  Ðthis€report€may€be€referred€to€simply€as€"Committee€on€the€NewÐ H ˜  ÐPoor€Law";òòóó€Phyllis€Deane€and€W.A.€Cole,€òòBritish€Economic€GrowthÐ `  Ð1688„1959óó€(1962),€p.€75,€quoted€in€Brinley€Thomas,€"FeedingÐ Ø(  ÐEngland€During€the€Industrial€Revolution:€€A€View€from€the€CelticÐ  ð  ÐFringe,"€òòAgricultural€Historyóó€56€(Jan.€1982):€338. FÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú39Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€119„20;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€220„21;€Thomas,€"Feeding€England,"òòóó€p.€331.€€See€also€Rule,Ð xÈ ÐòòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€51„53;€E.P.€Thompson,€"The€Moral€EconomyÐ @ Ðof€the€English€Crowd€in€the€Eighteen€Century,"€òòPast€and€Presentóó,Ð X Ðno.€50€(February€1971),€p.€80€(Charles€Smith);€Thomas,€"EscapingÐ Ð  Ðfrom€Constraints,"€p.€747;€J.L.€Hammond€and€Barbara€Hammond,€òòTheÐ ˜è ÐVillage€Laboureróó€(1911;€reprint€ed.,€London:€€Longmans,€Green€&Ð ` ° ÐCo.,€1966),€p.€123.€€However,€Caird€found€in€Lancashire€by€1850,Ð ( x Ðcompared€to€1770,€that€"oat„bread"€had€become€"much€superseded,Ð ð @ Ðeven€in€the€country€districts,€by€wheaten€bread"€which€now€soldÐ ¸   Ðat€a€slightly€lower€price.€€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€pp.€283„84. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú40Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€p.€110;€Cobbett€as€cited€byÐ ° ÐSomerville,€òòWhistleróó€€p.€296.€€Once€when€on€a€stagecoachÐ xÈ ÐSomerville€and€his€fellow€passengers€talked€about€the€relativeÐ @ Ðmerits€of€the€crops€in€Suffolk€and€Buckingham.€€After€discussingÐ X Ðwhat€kinds€they€liked€to€eat,€he€asked€the€stagecoach's€guardÐ Ð  Ðwhat€type€of€potatoes€he€liked.€€He€replied:€€"Give€me...€goodÐ ˜è Ðold€English€fare,€and€good€old€English€times,€and€òòdangóó€yourÐ ` ° Ðpotatoes€and€railroads€both!"€€òòWhistleróó,€p.€50.òòóó ÑÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú41Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€62,€249,€303,€405,€414. ÛÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú42Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRichard€Jefferies,€òòHodge€and€His€Mastersóó,€2€vols.€(1880;€Ð ° Ðreprint€ed.,€London:€€MacGibbon€&€Kee,€1966),€2:71;€See€ArthurÐ xÈ ÐYoung's€comment€in€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€122;Ð @ ÐThompson,€"Moral€Economy,"€p.€81;€see€also€footnote€19,€p.€82. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú43Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€p.€243;€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€4„14;Ð ° ÐThompson,€"Moral€Economy,"€p.€82. hÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú44Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCaird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€pp.€84„85;€òòóóòòóóSomerville,Ð ° ÐòòWhistleróó,€pp.€18,€32;€Jefferies,€òòHodgeóó,€1:78;€Olmsted,€òòWalks€andÐ xÈ ÐTalksóó,€p.€237. DÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú45Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGreat€Britain,€Parliament,€òòBPPóó,€1824,€vol.€VI,€SelectÐ ° ÐCommittee€on€Labourers'€Wages,€òòóóas€found€in€Nigel€E.€Agar,€òòTheÐ xÈ ÐBedfordshire€Farm€Worker€in€the€Nineteenth€Centuryóó€(n.p.:€Ð @ ÐPublications€of€the€Bedfordshire€Historical€Record€Society)€60Ð X Ð(1981):66.€€Indicating€that€conditions€for€unskilled€laborers€hadÐ Ð  V Ðchanged€little€even€during€the€First€World€War,€the€sample€menusÐ ° Ðfor€a€lower€middle€class€household€were€far€superior€to€aÐ xÈ Ðlaborer's€in€Peel's€òòEat„Less„Meat„Bookóó€of€1917.€€SomeÐ @ Ðagricultural€laborers€still€ate€up€to€fourteen€pounds€of€bread€aÐ X Ðweek€during€the€First€World€War.€€(Unlike€Germany,€the€diets€ofÐ Ð  Ðthe€English€working€class€on€the€whole€actually€òòimprovedóó€duringÐ ˜è ÐWorld€War€I).€€Arthur€Marwick,€òòThe€Deluge:€€British€Society€andÐ ` ° Ðthe€First€World€Waróó€(Boston:€€Little,€Brown€&€Co.,€1965;€reprintÐ ( x Ðed.,€New€York:€€W.W.€Norton€&€Co.,€1970),€pp.€123„25,€135,€193,Ð ð @ Ð196„200 +Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú46Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóóòòóó,€1:72;€an€example€of€such€moralizing€is€òòóóinÐ ° Ð2:80„91;€Olmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€p.€243. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú47Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€221„22;€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ° ÐAgriculture,òòóó€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.€vii,€xii„xiii. éÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú48Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòóóCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð ° Ðxvii,€xx;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€128;€John€Burnett,€ed.,€òòUsefulÐ xÈ ÐToil:€€Autobiographies€of€Working€People€from€the€1820s€to€theÐ @ Ð1920sóó€(1974;€reprint€ed.,€London:€€Routledge,€1994),€pp.€51„52. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú49Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓComparing€slaves€given€rations€largely€regardless€of€workÐ ° Ðdone€and€laborers€earning€wages€presents€some€theoreticalÐ xÈ Ðproblems.€€Normally,€slaves€earned€no€wages,€except€for€extraÐ @ Ðwork€outside€normal€hours,€and€were€given€a€ration€of€food€eachÐ X Ðweek€or€month€regardless€of€the€amount€of€work€done.€€But€theÐ Ð  Ðagricultural€laborers,€if€they€had€no€access€to€a€commons,€anÐ ˜è Ðallotment,€or€were€not€under€a€yearly€contract€as€a€farm€servant,Ð ` ° Ðhad€their€standard€of€living€virtually€defined€by€their€wages.€Ð ( x ÐSo€when€examining€their€diets,€wages€stand€as€a€partial€proxy€forÐ ð @ Ðcomparison€purposes€when€specific€information€on€pounds€of€foodÐ ¸   Ðeaten€per€person€per€week€are€not€available€for€the€laborers. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú50Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€32,€335„36;€See€also€p.€120;Ð ° ÐCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€8òòóó;Ð xÈ ÐCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€p.€400;€Phillip€D.€Morgan,€"The€OwnershipÐ @ Ðof€Property€by€Slaves€in€the€Mid„Nineteenth„Century€Low€Country,"Ð X ÐòòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó,€49€(Aug.€1983):399„420;€ForÐ Ð  Ðbutcher's€meat€as€a€luxury,€see€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€29Ð ˜è Ðand€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€228. úÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú51Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJefferies,€òòHodgeóó,€1:97.€€Jefferies€portrayed€one€oldÐ ° Ðfarmer€who€rose€by€practicing€the€utmost€parsimony.€€But€as€heÐ xÈ Ðgrew€older€and€his€teeth€weaker,€he€started€ordering€butcher'sÐ @ Ðmeat.€€His€equally€stingy€wife€furiously€opposed€this€luxury,Ð X Ðwhich€normally€was€one€leg€of€mutton€each€week.€€His€teeth€couldÐ Ð  Ðno€longer€take€"the€coarse,€fat,€yellowy€bacon€that€[had]€formedÐ ˜è Ðthe€staple"€of€his€diet,€"often...€with€the€bristles€thickÐ ` ° Ðupon€it."€€òòHodgeóó,€1:55. ·Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú52Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGreat€Britain,€Parliament,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€vol.€VII,€ReportÐ ° Ðfrom€Select€Committee€on€Labouring€Poor€(Allotments€of€Land),€pp.Ð xÈ Ð3,€12,€14,€20,€113.€€This€report€may€be€referred€to€simply€asÐ @ V Ð"Committee€on€Allotments"€below. ^Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú53Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€217;€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ° ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€report,€p.€il;€Arthur€Young,Ð xÈ ÐòòGeneral€Report€on€Enclosures:€€Drawn€up€by€Order€of€the€Board€ofÐ @ ÐAgricultureóó€(London:€€B.€McMillan,€1808;€reprint€ed.,€New€York:€Ð X ÐAugustus€M.€Kelly,€Publishers,€1971),€pp.€14,€150„52;€Somerville,Ð Ð  ÐòòWhistleróó,€p.€42. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú54Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€the€influence€of€the€Swing€Riots€on€allotments,€seeÐ ° ÐHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€157;€Committee€onÐ xÈ ÐAllotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€ii„iv;€Young,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€47,Ð @ Ð107,€166,€348„50òòóó;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,Ð X Ð1867„68,€p.€xxv. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú55Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€p.€308;€see€also€p.€336. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú56Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThomas€Smart,€father€of€thirteen€children€with€seven€stillÐ ° Ðliving€when€he€was€forty„six€years€old,€was€asked€by€the€SelectÐ xÈ ÐCommittee€on€Labourers'€Wages:€€"Do€you€know€any€labourers€withÐ @ Ðso€large€family€as€you€have,€who€have€brought€them€up€withoutÐ X V Ðassistance€from€the€parish?"€€He€replied:€€"Never€one€but€me."€Ð ° Ð(He€mentioned€having€taken€burial€expenses€from€the€parish,€butÐ xÈ Ðnothing€else€earlier).€€òòBPPóó,€1824,€vol.€VI,€pp.€53„56,€as€inÐ @ ÐAgar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€64„65,€67. ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú57Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòThe€Cotton€Kingdomóó,€2:240;€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐLifeóó,€p.€409. ÇÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú58Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óas€cited€in€Thompson,€"Moral€Economy,"€p.€82. !Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú59Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEdward€Butt,€a€relief€officer€for€Petworth€union,€Sussex,Ð ° Ðstated€that€he€resigned€from€that€position€not€just€because€of€aÐ xÈ Ð20l./year€salary€cut,€but€also€because:€€"I€was€hurt€in€myÐ @ Ðfeelings€to€see€the€pitiful€cries€of€the€poor;€it€would€hurt€anyÐ X Ðman€to€see€a€parcel€of€young€children,€and€have€no€more€to€give,Ð Ð  Ðit€would€touch€the€heart€of€a€flint„stone;€I€could€not€bear€it;€IÐ ˜è Ðdid€not€wish€to€mention€that€[initially€to€the€Committee]."€Ð ` ° ÐCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€6. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú60Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€409.€€See€also€pp.€46„47.€€OnÐ ° Ðp.€114€he€says:€€"Gave€women€Calico€dress."€€For€blankets€given,Ð xÈ Ðsee€pp.€219„20€(seventy€bought);€p.€377€(thirty€bought);€Drew,Ð @ ÐòòRefugeeóó,€pp.€155„156€(Henderson)€€Admittedly,€since€he€was€mostlyÐ X Ða€child€during€this€period,€he€was€not€likely€to€be€issued€aÐ Ð  Ðblanket€individually;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:105,€193,€200„Ð ˜è Ð210,€211òòóó;€For€pay€for€working€irregular€times,€see€Ball,€òòSlaveryÐ ` ° V Ðin€the€United€Statesóó,€p.€44. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú61Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€278;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:40,€52;Ð ° ÐKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€52„53. €Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú62Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€122;€For€exceptions,€seeÐ ° Ðpp.€81,€85;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€43,€44;€For€Finch's€andÐ xÈ ÐEpp's€recollections,€see€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€72,Ð @ Ð73;€òòóóCharles€Ball€of€Maryland€said€that€"Children€not€able€to€workÐ X Ðin€the€field,€were€not€provided€with€clothes€at€all,€by€theirÐ Ð  Ðmasters."€€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€p.€44. ³Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú63Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€289„90;€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ ° ÐKingdomóó,€1:52.€€However,€exceptions€occurred:€€While€visiting€oneÐ xÈ Ðneighboring€(and€declining)€plantation€on€a€Georgian€sea€island,Ð @ ÐKemble€encountered€barefoot,€"half„naked€negro€women"€whoÐ X Ð"brought€in€refreshments."€€òòJournalóó,€p.€296.€€Similar€standardsÐ Ð  Ðlikely€prevailed€for€many€rural€small€slaveholders€in€theÐ ˜è Ðinterior€regions€of€the€South. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú64Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€141„42;€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ ° ÐKingdomóó,€1:242;€George€P.€Rawick,€ed.,€òòThe€American€Slave:€€AÐ xÈ ÐComposite€Autobiographyóó€19€vols.€(1972„:€€Westport),€òòSouthÐ @ ÐCarolina€Narrativesóó,€II€(2),€36,€quoted€in€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð X ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€p.€370òòóó. ¤Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú65Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€145;€Ô_ÔNorthrupÔ_Ô,€òòTwelve€YearsÐ ° Ða€Slaveóó,€p.€164;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€281;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCottonÐ xÈ ÐKingdomóó,€1:211.€€He€commented€while€in€Virginia,€p.€105:€€"OnÐ @ ÐSundays€and€holidays€they€usually€look€very€smart,€but€when€atÐ X Ðwork,€very€ragged€and€slovenly." ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú66Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCharles€Ball€chose€to€stop€wearing€the€straw€hat€his€wifeÐ ° Ðgave€him€while€working.€€He€feared€standing€out€since€he€was€theÐ xÈ Ðonly€slave€on€the€plantation€with€a€hat.€€Ball,€òòSlavery€in€theÐ @ V ÐUnited€Statesóó,€p.€[1]47. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú67Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:267„268. ]Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú68Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€63;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€pp.€188,€193„195;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:68„69;€JoanÐ xÈ ÐRezner€Gundersen,€"The€Double€Bonds€of€Race€and€Sex:€€Black€andÐ @ ÐWhite€Women€in€a€Colonial€Virginia€Parish,"€òòJournal€of€SouthernÐ X ÐHistoryóó,€52€(Aug.€1986):369;€Bassett,€òòThe€Plantation€Overseeróó,€p.Ð Ð  Ð180. ÅÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú69Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€551. ìÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú70Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBassett€maintained€going€barefoot€in€warm€weather€wasÐ ° Ðexpected.€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€271;€the€testimony€of€ReynoldsÐ xÈ Ðand€Kinney€is€in€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€82,€122;€Davis,Ð @ ÐòòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€239;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€17„18;€Douglass,Ð X V ÐòòNarrativeóó,€p.€43;€for€an€exception,€see€Cicero€Finch€of€GeorgiaÐ ° Ðin€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€72;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð xÈ Ð1:104.€€Curiously,€Olmsted€found€in€one€area€of€Tennessee€aÐ @ Ðmajority€of€poor€òòwhitesóó€routinely€went€barefoot€in€winter,€evenÐ X Ðwhen€the€snow€was€four€or€five€inches€deep€without€thinking€itÐ Ð  Ðwas€much€of€a€problem!€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:128.€ ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú71Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€271;€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐLifeóó,€pp.€82,€101,€133,€213,€342,€409;€for€the€use€of€localÐ xÈ Ðcobblers,€see€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€188;€Botkin,€òòLayÐ @ ÐMy€Burden€Downóó,€p.€63. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú72Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:116„17;€Sutch€inÐ ° ÐDavid,òòóó€òòReckoningóó,€pp.€298„99;€Ball,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€146„[1]47;€cf.€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€289,€291„92. >Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú73Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€66„67;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,Ð ° Ðp.€382;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€31;€Cobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€p.€96. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú74Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€51,€306,€433;€òòóóSomerville,Ð ° ÐòòWhistleróó,€p.€281;€Having€one€set€of€clothes€is€mentioned€in€òòóóRule,Ð xÈ ÐòòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€68. ÓÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú75Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€119,€120,€413òòóó,€414. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú76Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€99„100òòóó;€Committee€on€New€PoorÐ ° ÐLaw,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€14. \Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú77Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCaird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€73;€Anonymous,€òòA€CountryÐ ° ÐRector's€Address€to€His€Parishionersóó€(London:€€Hatchard€&€Son;Ð xÈ Ðand€C.J.G.€&€F.€Rivington;€and€J.€Swinnerton,€Macclesfield,Ð @ Ð1830),€p.€19;€òòA€Plain€Statement€of€the€Case€of€the€Labourer;€forÐ X Ðthe€Consideration€of€the€Yeomen€and€Gentlemen€of€the€SouthernÐ Ð  ÐDistricts€of€Englandóó€(London:€€Whittaker,€Treacher,€and€Arnot,Ð ˜è Ð1830;€and€Winchester:€€Robbins€and€Wheeler,€1830),€p.€24;€reprintÐ ` ° Ðed.,€Kenneth€E.€Carpenter,€ed.,€òòThe€Rising€of€the€AgriculturalÐ ( x ÐLabourers:€€Nine€Pamphlets€and€Six€Broadsides€1830„1831óó,€BritishÐ ð @ ÐLabour€Struggles:€€Contemporary€Pamphlets€1727„1850€(New€York:€Ð ¸   ÐArno€Press,€New€York€Times€Co.,€1972).€€The€latter's€sampleÐ € Ð  Ðbudgets,€with€their€modicum€of€comfort,€are€found€on€pp.€4,€21„Ð H ˜  Ð23.€€When€compared€to€the€testimony€of€Thomas€Stuart,€aÐ `  ÐBedfordshire€farm€laborer,€they€appear€realistic.€€This€man€spentÐ Ø(  Ðfifteen€shillings€a€year€"for€a€pair€of€strong€shoes€to€go€toÐ  ð  Ðwork€in,"€and€the€sample€budget€said€men's€shoes€cost€thirteenÐ h¸  Ðshillings.€€He€spent€less€on€shoes€for€the€rest€of€his€familyÐ 0€  Ðthan€the€sample€budget€did,€however,€saying€his€whole€family€inÐ øH  Ðone€year€"stands€me€in€2€ð ð€for€shoe€bills."€€See€the€excerpt€ofÐ À Ðthe€Select€Committee€on€Labourers'€Wages,€òòBPPóó,€1824,€vol.€VI,€inÐ ˆØ ÐAgar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€67. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú78Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ócf.€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:236. ÏÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú79Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€112òòóó,€147. [Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú80Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJenny€Proctor€of€Alabama€remembered€that€some€cracks€wereÐ ° Ðchinked€up€and€some€were€not.€€Marion€Johnson,€once€a€slave€inÐ xÈ ÐLouisiana,€could€count€the€stars€through€the€cracks€in€hisÐ @ Ðmother's€cabin.€€Millie€Evans€of€North€Carolina€recalled€thatÐ X Ð"nice€dirt€floors€was€the€style€then."€€Showing€the€master€wasÐ Ð  Ðnot€especially€neglectful€for€one€quarters€of€twelve€cabins,€ex„Ð ˜è Ðslave€Rose€Williams€regarded€it€as€good€in€quality,€yet€stillÐ ` ° Ðnoted:€€"There€am€no€floor,€just€the€ground."€€Botkin,€òòLay€MyÐ ( x ÐBurden€Downóó,€pp.€62,€89,€139,€161.€€Solomon€Northrup€describedÐ ð @ Ðhis€cabin€as€being€built€of€logs,€without€window€or€floor,€withÐ ¸   Ðlarge€crevices€letting€in€the€necessary€light€and€unnecessaryÐ € Ð  Ðrain!€€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€p.€128. !Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú81Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€155.€€Kemble€found€similar€conditions€atÐ ° ÐSt.€Annie's,€in€which€the€bondsmen's€homes€failed€to€keep€out€theÐ xÈ Ðrain.€€òòJournalóó,€p.€239;€Booker€T.€Washington,€òòUp€From€SlaveryóóÐ @ Ð(1901;€New€York:€€Airmount€Publishing€Company,€1967),€pp.€15„16;Ð X  ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:207. $Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú82Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:38,€340,€373;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,Ð ° Ðp.€242;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€75. yÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú83Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:52,€237„38;€2:166,€193,€195;Ð ° ÐArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€57;€Marion€Johnson's€testimonyÐ xÈ Ðin€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€139.òòóó ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú84Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:360,€373„74;€2:44„45Ð ° Ð(generally),€2:4„5€(Texas),€2:105„106€(Mississippi),€2:112Ð xÈ Ð(Alabama);€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€116,€248òòóóòòóó;€see€also€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð @ ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€532„34. hÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú85Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:116;€Sutch€inÐ ° ÐDavid,òòóó€òòReckoningóó,€p.€294;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€30.€€The€housingÐ xÈ Ðcomparisons€with€the€sea„island€cotton€estate€and€other€localÐ @ Ðplaces€are€on€pp.€178„79,€187,€234,€236,€242;€Bassett,€òòPlantationÐ X ÐOverseeróó,€p.€262;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€525;Ð Ð  V ÐBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€p.€254;€Stampp,€òòPeculiarÐ ° ÐInstitutionóó,€pp.€294„95.€€Genovese's€portrayal€of€the€poorÐ xÈ Ðwhites'€housing€conditions€is€similar€to€the€above.€€òòRoll,Ð @ ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€533„34. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú86Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€526;€Richard€Sutch€inÐ ° ÐDavid,€et€al,€òòReckoningóó,€pp.€292„98. iÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú87Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFrederick€Law€Olmsted,€òòA€Journey€in€the€Seaboard€SlaveÐ ° ÐStates€in€the€Years€1853„1854€with€Remarks€on€Their€Economyóó€(NewÐ xÈ ÐYork,€1856;€reprint€ed.,€New€York:€€G.P.€Putnam's€Sons,€1904),Ð @ Ð2:317.€€Genovese's€reference€to€pp.€659„60€is€to€the€1856Ð X Ðedition.€€Also€see€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:320;€Kemble,Ð Ð  ÐòòJournalóó,€pp.€24,€134„315,€234;€cf.€pp.€66„67. ½Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú88Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:218;€Bonnie€Thornton€Dill,€"OurÐ ° ÐMothers'€Grief:€€Racial€Ethnic€Women€and€the€Maintenance€ofÐ xÈ ÐFamilies,"€òòJournal€of€Family€Historyóó,€13€(1988):420;€Genovese,Ð @ ÐòòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€462„63. OÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú89Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€23,€24,€30„31,€213.€€Interestingly,Ð ° ÐKemble's€work€features€not€only€an€almost€complete€lack€ofÐ xÈ Ðracism,€but€a€nearly€continual€rebuttal€against€it,€which€wasÐ @ Ðsurely€rare€for€whites€living€in€America.€€Perhaps€it€was€in€partÐ X Ðdue€to€her€being€an€Englishwoman,€for€Jacobs€experienced€noÐ Ð  Ðracism€in€England,€unlike€in€the€North:€€"During€all€that€timeÐ ˜è Ð[ten€months€in€England],€I€never€saw€the€slightest€symptom€ofÐ ` ° Ðprejudice€against€color."€€òòIncidents€in€the€Life€of€a€Slave€Girlóó,Ð ( x Ðp.€190;€compare€pp.€180„82. ¥Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú90Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCrader,€"Slave€Diet,"€pp.€694,€713;€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐLifeóó,€pp.€153,€190.€€See€also€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð311;€Note€Harriett€Payne's€comments,€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,Ð @ Ðp.€147. 2Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú91Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAs€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:121€note:€Ð ° Ð"Few€matters€were€more€frequently€emphasized€in€the€instructionsÐ xÈ Ðto€overseers€than€the€need€to€insure€not€only€the€personalÐ @ Ðcleanliness€of€slaves€but€also€the€cleanliness€of€their€clothes,Ð X Ðtheir€bedding,€and€their€cabins."€€Since€such€instructions€wereÐ Ð  Ðlikely€those€written€by€the€owners€of€the€largest€and€best„Ð ˜è Ðestablished€plantations,€naturally€any€paternalistic€impulses€onÐ ` ° Ðhygiene€would€show€up€disproportionately€in€whatever€recordsÐ ( x ÐFogel€and€Engerman€examined.€€Nevertheless,€as€Kemble's€husband'sÐ ð @ Ðtwo€plantations€demonstrate,€even€large,€long„establishedÐ ¸   Ðplantations€could€be€very€ill„kept€places€populated€with€ill„Ð € Ð  Ðwashed€slaves. ÅÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú92Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€528. OÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú93Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavid€Hoseason€Morgan,€òòHarvesters€and€Harvesting€1840„Ð ° Ð1900:€€A€Study€of€the€Rural€Proletariatóó€(London:€€Croom€Helm,Ð xÈ Ð1982),€pp.€184„85. ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú94Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCaird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€95. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú95Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€pp.€75„76.òòóó€€See€also€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ° ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€report,òòóó€p.€xxv. =Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú96Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓUnder€the€settlement€law€of€1662,€a€newly€arrived€workerÐ ° Ðto€one€parish€could€be€forcibly€removed€to€his€parish€ofÐ xÈ Ðorigin/settlement€if€he€or€she€was€likely€to€become€chargeableÐ @ Ð(i.e.,€take€relief)€within€40€days€of€arrival,€at€the€expense€ofÐ X Ðthe€parish€of€settlement.€€But€starting€in€1795,€the€lawÐ Ð  Ðprohibited€evicting€the€poor€until€they€became€actuallyÐ ˜è V Ðchargeable€to€the€parish,€and€it€switched€the€expense€of€removalÐ ° Ðto€the€parish€ordering€the€eviction.€€See€Deane,€òòFirst€IndustrialÐ xÈ ÐRevolutionóó,€p.€153. ÊÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú97Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCf.€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€pp.€75„76. zÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú98Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€76;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€44,Ð ° Ð127.€€He€cited€the€1867„68€Parliamentary€Commission€on€conditionsÐ xÈ Ðin€agriculture€to€bolster€his€case.€€Admittedly,€as€a€unionÐ @ Ðleader,€he€had€an€incentive€to€exaggerate€how€common€badÐ X Ðconditions€were;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€172,€380;€See€theÐ Ð  Ðtestimony€of€Emma€Thompson€and€Mark€Crabtree€in€Agar,Ð ˜è ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€90„91,€127;€òòParliamentary€Historyóó,Ð ` ° ÐFeb.€12,€1797,€as€cited€in€the€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ( x ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€reportòòóó,€p.€ivòòóó. _Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú99Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€78„81;€The€Vicar€ofÐ ° ÐTerrington€as€quoted€in€John€Patrick,€"Agricultural€Gangs,"Ð xÈ ÐòòHistory€Todayóó,€March€1986,€p.€24.€€Similar€concerns€also€appearÐ @ Ðin€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóóòòóó,€1867„68,€firstÐ X Ðreport,€pp.€24„25.€€Caird€incidently€noted€this€problem.€€òòEnglishÐ Ð  ÐAgricultureóó,€p.€516. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú100Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€271òòóó;€Olmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€p.Ð ° Ð239.€€Similarly,€Somerville€denied€a€certain€Mr.€Bennet'sÐ xÈ Ðstatement€that€England€was€"highly€civilized"€if€he€included€theÐ @ Ðlaborers,€especially€since€they€no€longer€ate€and€lived€in€theÐ X Ðfarmers'€own€homes.€€òòWhistleróó,€p.€147. ±Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú101Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€81;€Olmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,Ð ° Ðp.€239,€mentions€a€minister€who€declared€society€intentionallyÐ xÈ Ðand€permanently€should€always€have€one€part€dependent€on€theÐ @ Ðcharity€of€another€part. $Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú102Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€78;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€44;Ð ° ÐOlmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€pp.€76,€208„10. iÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú103Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,Ð ° Ðfirst€report,€òòóóp.€xxv;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€380;€Caird,Ð xÈ ÐòòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€389. ÆÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú104Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAccording€to€Edward€Butt,€before€the€French€RevolutionÐ ° Ðcottages€went€for€40„50s./year.€€Two€guineas€for€a€cottage€with€aÐ xÈ Ðgarden€was€common.€€Committee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,Ð @ Ðsecond€report,€p.€8;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,Ð X ÐòòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€report,€p.€xxv;€For€the€cottage„owner'sÐ Ð  Ðcomments,€see€Committee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ ˜è Ðreport,€p.€14;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€416. VÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú105Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCaird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€pp.€161,€197,€516;€CommissionÐ ° Ðon€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€report,€pp.Ð xÈ Ðxvi,€xxv,€xliv. ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú106Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð ° Ðxi,€xv€(improving€cottage€quality),€lv€(profitability€problem);Ð xÈ ÐCommittee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€14;€Caird,Ð @ ÐòòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€125; àÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú107Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCaird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€pp.€76,€98€(Duke€ofÐ ° ÐWellington),€182€(Duke€of€Bedford),€197,€516òòóó.€€Somerville€madeÐ xÈ Ðsimilar€observations€about€Wellington's€cottages,€adding€thatÐ @ Ðthese€were€"the€best€cottages€and€gardens€given€to€the€poor€atÐ X Ðtheir€rent€(ð ð3€10s.€a„year)€that€I€have€seen€in€any€part€of€theÐ Ð  Ðkingdom."€€òòWhistleróó,€p.€131;€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.Ð ˜è Ð21€(Culley's€observation),€69€(Duke€of€Bedfordshire),€301€(LordÐ ` ° ÐBeverly),€389„90€(Northumberland/Waterford),€401„2€(Duke€ofÐ ( x ÐDevonshire);€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„Ð ð @ Ð68,€first€report,€p.€xvi;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€371,€375„76. SÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú108Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€1837,Ð ° Ðp.€14.€In€the€second€report,€p.€7,€for€the€parish€of€Petworth,Ð xÈ ÐLord€Egremont€charged€nearly€one„third€less€rent€for€comparableÐ @ Ðhousing€(tenements€for€the€poor)€than€the€tradesmen€who€ownedÐ X Ðhouses€there;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€172;€Rule,€òòLabouringÐ Ð  ÐClassesóó,€p.€78. ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú109Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóóòòóó,€p.€87;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:167;Ð ° ÐFriedrich€Engels,€òòThe€Condition€of€the€Working€Class€in€Englandóó,Ð xÈ Ðeds.€and€trans.€W.O.€Henderson€and€W.H.€Chaloner€(New€York:€Ð @ ÐMacmillan€Co.,€1958),€p.€110. †Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú110Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€352.€€But€during€this€same€generalÐ ° Ðtime€period,€Jeffries€noted€the€increasing€pressures€forÐ xÈ Ðimproving€sanitary€conditions€in€villages,€which€the€landownersÐ @ Ðnormally€had€to€shoulder€the€burden€of€paying€for.€€Even€if€theyÐ X Ðdelayed€making€improvements,€"it€is€impossible€to€avoid€themÐ Ð  Ðaltogether."€€òòHodgeóó,€2:113;€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€390.òòóó ·Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú111Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€2:70. ±Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú112Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€121,€62€(Evans),€315Ð ° Ð(Johnson);€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€43;€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€aÐ xÈ ÐSlaveóó,€p.€128;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€67,€315;€Drew,òòóó€òòRefugeeóó,€1969,Ð @ Ðp.€109;€At€one€fairly€typical€poor€white's€cabin,€Olmsted€tookÐ X Ðoff€his€stockings€initially€when€going€to€bed,€but€almostÐ Ð  Ðimmediately€put€them€back€on,€pulling€them€over€his€pantaloons.€Ð ˜è Ð"The€advantage€of€this€arrangement€was€that,€although€my€face,Ð ` ° Ðeyes,€ears,€neck,€and€hands,€were€immediately€attacked,€theÐ ( x Ðvermin€did€not€reach€my€legs€for€two€or€three€hours."€€òòCottonÐ ð @ ÐKingdomóó,€2:107. <Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú113Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€66„67,€314„15;€Charles€E.€Orser,€Jr.,Ð ° Ð"The€Archaeological€Analysis€of€Plantation€Society:€€ReplacingÐ xÈ ÐStatus€and€Caste€with€Economics€and€Power,"€òòAmerican€Antiquityóó,Ð @ Ð53€(1988)€737„38,€746„47;€òòóóNorthrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€pp.Ð X Ð148„49.€€His€testimony€conflicts€with€Stampp's€view€that€aÐ Ð  Ðmajority€of€slaveowners€provided€frying€pans€and€iron€pots€toÐ ˜è Ðtheir€bondsmen.€€Ironically€he€makes€this€assessment€just€afterÐ ` ° Ðciting€Northrup€in€òòThe€Peculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€287.€€Compare€hisÐ ( x Ðtreatment€(pp.€287„88)€with€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.Ð ð @ Ð530„532;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€121€(Reynolds),€161Ð ¸   Ð(Williams);òòóó€Blassingame,€òòThe€Slave€Communityóó,€p.€255. ¯Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú114Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMinutes€of€Evidence€Before€Select€Committee€on€the€PoorÐ ° ÐLaw€Amendment€Act,€òòBPPóó,€1838,€vol.€XVIII,€part€II,€as€reprintedÐ xÈ Ðin€Agar,€òòThe€Bedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€90„91;€Somerville,Ð @ ÐòòWhistleróó,€p.€46. bÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú115Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€257,€413.€€He€described€(p.€406)Ð ° Ðthat€in€Heyshot€parish,€Sussex,€laborers€had€to€sell€theirÐ xÈ Ðgardens,€small€orchards,€and€houses€in€order€to€get€relief.€€TheyÐ @ Ðonly€needed€it€to€begin€with€because€the€local€farmers€resentedÐ X Ðtheir€independence,€so€they€refused€to€hire€them€except€atÐ Ð  Ðharvest€or€some€other€time€of€high€demand. pÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú116Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€47„48;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:87Ð ° Ð(charcoal),€103€(my€emphasis,€Virginia),€104„5,€215€(like€fires)òòóó,Ð xÈ Ð2:180€(collect€firewood).òòóó hÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú117Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThe€South€was€"where€fuel€has€no€value."€€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ ° ÐKingdomóó,€2:250.€€Genovese€describes€the€sexual€division€of€laborÐ xÈ Ðfor€fires€and€fuel:€€The€men€collected€the€firewood,€while€theÐ @ Ðwomen€lit€or€kept€the€fires€burning.€€In€Africa,€the€sex€rolesÐ X Ðare€reversed;€the€women€collect€the€family's€firewood€even€toÐ Ð  Ðthis€day.€€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€525. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú118Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€p.€73;€Deane,€òòFirst€IndustrialÐ ° ÐRevolutionóó,€pp.€104,€110. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú119Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓYoung,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€158„61.€€Only€blacksmiths€usedÐ ° Ðcoal€near€where€Isaac€Bawcombe€lived€in€Wiltshire€in€the€1840s,Ð xÈ V Ðwhere€peat€was€the€main€fuel.€€Hudson,€òòA€Shepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€75„Ð ° Ð76.€€Somerville€said€the€thinness€of€the€turf€in€Heyshot€parishÐ xÈ Ðmade€it€a€very€poor€fuel.€€Where€it€was€a€thick€mold,€"the€turfÐ @ Ðis€excellent€fuel,"€but€it€seems€he€is€judging€this€by€relativeÐ X ÐEnglish€standards.€€òòWhistleróó,€p.€405.€€Note€also€Cobbett,€òòRuralÐ Ð  ÐRidesóó,€p.€234. dÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú120Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòóóYoung,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€83,€86;€Committee€on€the€NewÐ ° ÐPoor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€8;€Cobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,Ð xÈ Ðp.€196;€note€also€pp.€206,€252„53;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€62„Ð @ Ð63.€€This€example€also€showed€how€annual€service€could€beÐ X Ðexploitive€as€labor€paid€by€the€day.€€This€boy€was€paid€justÐ Ð  Ðthree€shillings€a€week. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú121Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€47;€Hammond€and€Hammond,Ð ° ÐòòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€126„28. óÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú122Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€p.Ð ° Ðxiv. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú123Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€210„11;€R.W.€Bushaway,Ð ° Ð"'Grovely,€Grovely,€Grovely,€and€All€Grovely':€€Custom,€Crime€andÐ xÈ ÐConflict€in€the€English€Woodland,"€òòHistory€Todayóó,€May€1981,€p.Ð @ Ð43;€òòóóHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€212„13;€Hammond€and€Hammond,Ð X ÐòòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€128€(charity's€limits),€197€(breakingÐ Ð  Ðbough).€€Arch€remembered€the€rector's€wife€handed€out€soup€andÐ ˜è Ðcoals€in€his€parish€when€he€was€a€child.€€But€her€charity€servedÐ ` ° Ðas€a€control€device€to€help€humble€the€poor€before€theirÐ ( x Ð"betters"€and€to€keep€them€attending€the€Established€Church.€€AtÐ ð @ Ðleast€eventually,€his€mother€refused€to€take€any.€€Arch,€òòJosephÐ ¸   ÐArchóó,€pp.€15,€17„18,€21„22. @Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú124Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMost€Southern€slaveholders€could€not€be€mistaken€for€òòhomoÐ ° Ðeconomicusóó,€as€Kemble€knew.€€They€were€not€calculatingÐ xÈ Ðbusinessmen€like€"Manchester€manufacturers€or€MassachusettsÐ @ Ðmerchants"€who€would€rarely€sacrifice€financial€interests€"at€theÐ X Ðinstigation€of€rage,€revenge,€and€hatred."€€In€a€portraitÐ Ð  Ðfamiliar€to€readers€of€Olmsted's€travels,€she€said:€€"TheÐ ˜è Ðplanters€of€the€interior€of€the€Southern€and€Southwestern€states,Ð ` ° Ðwith€their€furious€feuds€and€slaughterous€combats,€theirÐ ( x Ðstabbings€and€pistolings,€their€gross€sensuality,€brutalÐ ð @ Ðignorance,€and€despotic€cruelty,€resemble€the€chivalry€of€FranceÐ ¸   Ðbefore€the€horrors€of€the€Jacquerie€.€.€.€€With€such€men€asÐ € Ð  Ðthese,€human€life,€even€when€it€can€be€bought€or€sold€in€theÐ H ˜  Ðmarket€for€so€many€dollars,€is€but€little€protected€byÐ `  Ðconsiderations€of€interest€from€the€effects€of€any€violentÐ Ø(  Ðpassion."€€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€301,€303.€€The€roughneck,€non„Ð  ð  Ðcalculating€culture€of€Southern€slaveowners€seriously€weakens€theÐ h¸  Ðstandard€apologetic€for€slavery,€since€the€owner's€self„interestÐ 0€  Ðcould€not€be€counted€on€to€restrain€how€he€treated€his€property. qÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú125Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEugene€Genovese,€"The€Medical€and€Insurance€Costs€ofÐ ° ÐSlaveholding€in€the€Cotton€Belt,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€45Ð xÈ Ð(July€1960):152;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€48. ¢Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú126Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€278.€€Fogel€and€Engerman€noteÐ ° Ðthat€doctors'€bills€listing€both€the€slaves€and€owning€family'sÐ xÈ Ðmembers€treated€on€the€same€visit€do€exist.€€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,Ð @ Ð1:120. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú127Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€he€condemned€the€repairman€of€his€gin€forÐ ° Ðtalking€to€his€blacks€as€if€they€were€equals.€€He€ran€off€hisÐ xÈ Ðproperty€the€proud,€well„dressed€mulatto€son€of€a€nearby€planterÐ @ Ðwho€dared€to€pass€through€his€plantation's€quarters.€€Davis,Ð X ÐòòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€186„87,€206„7. «Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú128Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€198,€280.€€Barrow€hadÐ ° Ðvaccinated€himself€and€his€children€against€some€(unnamed)Ð xÈ Ðdisease€earlier€(p.€87).€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€29Ð @ Ð(Plowden)òòóóòòóó,€p.€115. ËÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú129Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€71,€92„93. êÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú130Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€òòóóp.€122€(Reynolds),€71„72Ð ° Ð(Kendricks);€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€315;€Fogel€andÐ xÈ ÐEngerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:120;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,Ð @ Ðp.€29.€€Weston€also€provided€a€hospital€for€his€slaves,€p.€28;Ð X ÐòòóóKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€32„33,€214;òòóóòòóó€€Stampp€(p.€313)€notes€an€idealÐ Ð  Ðhospital€built€on€James€Hamilton€Couper's€Georgia€riceÐ ˜è Ðplantation.€Its€ideal€conditions,€including€steam€heat€and€floorsÐ ` ° Ðswept€daily€and€scrubbed€once€a€week,€should€not€be€seen€asÐ ( x Ðcommon.€€òòóóKemble€said€that€her€husband's€slaves€were€better€offÐ ð @ Ðthan€many€owned€by€other€masters€in€their€neighborhood. zÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú131Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€independent€source€of€authority€the€conjurors€had,Ð ° Ðsee€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€221;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€63;Ð xÈ ÐArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€64„66. 5Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú132Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€value€of€slave€midwives,€see€Mary€Beth€Norton,Ð ° ÐòòLiberty's€Daughters:€€The€Revolutionary€Experience€of€AmericanÐ xÈ ÐWomen,€1750„1800óó€(Glenview,€IL:€€Scott,€Foresman€&€Co.,€1980),€p.Ð @ Ð31;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€28„29,€317;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ X V ÐPeopleóó,€p.€176;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€141.òòóó Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú133Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIn€northeast€England€after€about€1720€parishes€routinelyÐ ° Ðhired€doctors€to€care€for€the€parish€poor.€€Earlier€cases,€suchÐ xÈ Ðas€Newcastle€paying€a€surgeon€in€the€1560s,€also€appear.€€P.Ð @ ÐRushton,€"The€Poor€Law,€the€Parish,€and€the€Community€in€North„Ð X ÐEast€England,"€òòNorthern€Historyóó€25€(1989):146. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú134Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,Ð ° Ðpp.€22,€50,€67.òòóó ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú135Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOne€doctor€told€Edward€Butt,€the€relieving€officer€forÐ ° ÐPetworth€parish€under€Gilbert's€act,€and€briefly€relievingÐ xÈ Ðofficer€for€Petworth€and€Kirdford€parishes€under€the€New€PoorÐ @ ÐLaw,€that€he€would€not€wait€to€get€the€relief€orders€from€himÐ X Ðbefore€aiding€the€poor:€€"I€shall€never€stop€for€your€orders,Ð Ð  Ðbecause€you€may€away€at€a€distance;€before€I€can€get€the€orderÐ ˜è Ðfrom€you,€a€person€may€be€dead."€€Ibid.,€second€report,òòóó€p.€2. ¾Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú136Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€first€report,€pp.€51„52,€67. ¬Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú137Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€pp.€18„19. fÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú138Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€pp.€241€(Mayhew),€419€("Most€wereÐ ° Ðartisans,")€421.€€Thompson€sees€benefit€clubs€as€one€of€the€mainÐ xÈ Ðsources€of€the€development€and€expression€of€class€consciousnessÐ @ Ðand€the€working€class's€sense€of€organization€in€resisting€theÐ X Ðelite€in€English€society;€Frank€E.€Huggett,€òòA€Day€in€the€Life€ofÐ Ð  Ða€Victorian€Farm€Workeróó€(London:€€George€Allen€&€Unwin€Ltd.,Ð ˜è Ð1972),€p.€60;€òòóóCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ ` ° Ðreport,€òòóóp.€18;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€34;€Hudson,€òòA€Shepherd'sÐ ( x ÐLifeóó,€pp.€299„304. ‹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú139Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€54„56;€On€the€value€of€inoculationsÐ ° Ðearly€on,€see€John€Rule,€òòThe€Vital€Century:€€England's€DevelopingÐ xÈ ÐEconomy,€1714„1815óó€(New€York:€€Longman€Group,€1992),€pp.€11„12. üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú140Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,Ð ° Ðòòóópp.€8„9. ÊÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú141Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€2:145.€€See€also€p.€144. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú142Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThis€crude€approximation€of€the€relative€proportion€ofÐ ° Ðnorthern€English€farmworkers€is€supported€by€the€figures€forÐ xÈ Ðtotal€population€by€county€found€in€Phyllis€Deane€and€W.A.€Cole,Ð @ ÐòòBritish€Economic€Growth€€1688„1959€€Trends€and€Structureóó,€2d€ed.Ð X Ð(Cambridge:€€Cambridge€University€Press,€1967),€p.€103. vÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú143Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAlthough€accepting€the€elite's€legal€categories,€YoungÐ ° Ðdoes€see€the€problems€in€ignoring€the€poor's€customary€rights:€Ð xÈ ÐòòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€12„14,€32„33,€155,€158;€cf.€p.€99. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú144Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€188„89. ñÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú145Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€44,€140„41. ¦Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú146Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThe€conditions€of€work€and€the€resulting€relationshipsÐ ° Ðthat€existed€between€the€superior€and€subordinate€class'sÐ xÈ Ðindividuals€on€the€job€are€an€important€aspect€of€the€quality€ofÐ @ Ðlife.€€But€since€the€struggles€between€these€two€groups€and€theÐ X Ðmethods€of€resistance€and€control€are€so€closely€tied€to€theÐ Ð  Ðquality€of€life€aspects€of€work,€this€subject€is€covered€inÐ ˜è Ðsections€four€and€five.€ ÔÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú147Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFreedwoman€Rose€Williams€of€Texas,€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ ° ÐDownóó,€p.€161;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€92;€1178a5„8;€òòThe€BasicÐ xÈ ÐWorks€of€Aristotleóó,€ed.€Richard€Ô_ÔMcKeonÔ_Ô€(New€York:€€Random€House,Ð @ Ð1941),€p.€1105;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€115.€€In€this€context€sheÐ X Ðmentions€a€mentally€retarded€woman€who€is€as€capable€at€fieldÐ Ð  Ðwork€as€other€slaves€without€this€handicap.€€By€contrast,€sheÐ ˜è Ðnoted€London,€a€literate€slave€and€preacher€on€the€sameÐ ` ° Ðplantation,€must€have€felt€deep€frustration€since€he€had€a€moreÐ ( x Ðinformed€outlook€on€life€and€the€world. ¥Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú148Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€50€(Rose),€275€(Sanders);€Botkin,€òòLayÐ ° ÐMy€Burden€Downóó,€p.€50;€As€Douglass€noted:€"A€city€slave€is€almostÐ xÈ Ða€freeman,€compared€with€a€slave€on€the€plantation."€€It€was€inÐ @ ÐBaltimore€that€he€learned€to€read,€continuing€on€the€with€aid€ofÐ X Ðwhite€children€after€his€mistress€stopped€teaching€him.€Ð Ð  ÐòòNarrativeóó,€p.€49„50,€53„54;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.Ð ˜è Ð562„63. ]Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú149Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€49,€94,€97òòóó;€Similarly,€escapedÐ ° Ðslave€Henry€Morehead€stated:€€"The€time€is€now,€when€the€coloredÐ xÈ Ðmen€begin€to€see€that€it€is€the€want€of€education€which€has€keptÐ @ Ðthem€in€bondage€so€long;"€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€180;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,Ð X Ðp.€130.€€See€also€p.€9;€as€quoted€in€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð Ð  Ð2:214. {Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú150Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNat€Turner,€in€1831€the€leader€of€the€bloodiest€AmericanÐ ° Ðslave€rebellion€which€erupted€in€Virginia,€was€literate,€whichÐ xÈ Ðcertainly€did€not€persuade€slaveholders€to€encourage€literacyÐ @ Ðamong€their€human€chattels.€€After€this€revolt€killed€some€sixtyÐ X Ðwhites,€the€white€South€suffered€an€abiding€trauma€that€lingeredÐ Ð  Ðinto€the€Civil€War.€€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€132„34. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú151Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óas€quoted€in€Richard€D.€Younger,€"Southern€Grand€JuriesÐ ° Ðand€Slavery,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€40€(Apr.€1955):168„69;Ð xÈ ÐBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€6;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€26;Ð @ ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:69„71;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.Ð X Ð185;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€97. ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú152Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€110,€175,€180„81€(Ô_ÔMoreheadÔ_Ô);€Brent,Ð ° ÐòòIncidentsóó,€pp.€74„75;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€89„90;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLayÐ xÈ ÐMy€Burden€Downóó,€p.€91. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú153Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJohn€Hope€Franklin,€òòFrom€Slavery€to€Freedom€€A€History€ofÐ ° ÐNegro€Americansóó,€5d€ed.€(New€York:€€Alfred€A.€Knopf,€1980),€p.Ð xÈ Ð145;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€158,€271;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€74;Ð @ ÐBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€50,€126;€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€aÐ X ÐSlaveóó,€p.€175. 'Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú154Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJohn€R.€Gillis,€òòThe€Development€of€European€Society,€1770„Ð ° Ð1870óó€(Lanham,€MD:€€University€Press€of€America,€1983),€p.€216Ð xÈ Ð(chart);€Hudson,€òòA€Shepherd's€Lifeóó,€p.€60;€Commission€onÐ @ ÐEmployment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€first€report,€pp.€xxi,Ð X Ðxix;€R.S.€Schofield,€"Dimensions€of€Illiteracy,€1750„1850,"Ð Ð  ÐòòExplorations€in€Economic€Historyóó,€10€(1973):€450,€cited€by€Snell,Ð ˜è ÐòòAnnalsóó,€p.€36;€Eric€J.€Hobsbawm€and€George€Rude,€òòCaptain€SwingóóÐ ` ° Ð(London:€€Lawrence€and€Wishart,€1969),€p.€64. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú155Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€64;€Somerville,Ð ° ÐòòWhistleróó,€p.€104;€Cobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€123„24. ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú156Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€9,€24„27;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€142„43;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„Ð xÈ V Ð68,€first€report,€p.€xviii;€David€Thomson,€òòEngland€in€theÐ ° ÐNineteenth€Century€1815„1914óó€(London:€€Penguin€Group,€1950),€p.Ð xÈ Ð135;€Pamela€Horn,€"Child€Workers€in€the€Victorian€Countryside:€Ð @ ÐThe€Case€of€Northamptonshire,"€òòNorthamptonshire€Past€and€PresentóóÐ X Ð7€(1985„86):175. µÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú157Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,Ð ° Ðfirst€report,€pp.€vii,€x„xi,€xv,€xx.€€In€1870s€Wiltshire€parentsÐ xÈ Ðhad€realized€the€value€of€education€much€more.€€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,Ð @ Ð2:67.€€(This€work€was€mainly€based€upon€his€experience€writingÐ X Ðfor€a€Wiltshire€and€Gloucestershire€newspaper€in€the€earlyÐ Ð  Ð1870s). ]Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú158Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð ° Ðix€(variations),€xiii,€xiv€(Northumberland),€xviii„xixÐ xÈ Ð(Leicestershire),€xxii€(Cambridge/Yorkshire),€xxviÐ @ Ð(Northamptonshire),€Ô_ÔxlviiiÔ_Ô„il€(concession).€€Arch€mentions€bothÐ X Ðextremes€in€ages.€€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€247„48òòóó. ˜Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú159Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHorn,€"Child€Workers,"€òòóó177„178;€Morgan,€òòHarvesters€andÐ ° ÐHarvestingóó,€pp.€64„67;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,Ð xÈ ÐòòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€òòóóp.€xxix. ‹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú160Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,Ð ° Ðcited€by€Agar,€òòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€19.€€This€county€wasÐ xÈ Ðheavily€agricultural,€so€most€(c.€80€percent)€of€its€inhabitantsÐ @ Ðwere€Ô_ÔfarmworkersÔ_Ô€and€their€families.€€Ô_ÔWoburnÔ_Ô€Union,€confining€itsÐ X Ðfigures€to€agricultural€laborers'€children€exclusively,€overallÐ Ð  Ðhad€839€in€attendance€with€1100€on€the€schools'€registers€forÐ ˜è Ðchildren€under€the€age€of€13€out€of€a€population€of€11,682€inÐ ` ° Ð1861.€€See€p.€13. ËÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú161Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€248. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú162Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€òòóóp.€25;€òòÔ_ÔWindhamÔ_Ô's€Speechesóó,€3:17,€citedÐ ° Ðby€Ô_ÔJ.L.Ô_Ô€and€Barbara€Hammond,€òòThe€Town€Ô_ÔLabourerÔ_Ô€1760„1832:€€TheÐ xÈ ÐNew€Ô_ÔCivilisationÔ_Ôóó€new€ed.€(London:€€Ô_ÔLongmansÔ_Ô,€Green€&€Co.,€1928),Ð @ Ðp.€56;€Ô_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,€òòDevelopment€of€European€Societyóó,€p.€215;€OneÐ X ÐSouthern€overseer€who€visited€England€noted€that€the€sameÐ Ð  Ðarguments€were€used€against€educating€the€Ô_ÔfarmworkersÔ_Ô€and€theÐ ˜è Ðslaves.€€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€193. 'Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú163Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€51„52;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€25.€Ð ° Ð ?Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú164Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Ô_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€pp.€55„56.€€H.G.€WellsÐ ° Ðobliquely€alludes€to€the€two€options€as€chosen€by€two€differentÐ xÈ Ðnations:€€"The€oligarchy€of€the€crowned€republic€of€Great€BritainÐ @ Ðmay€have€crippled€and€starved€education,€but€the€HohenzollernÐ X Ðmonarchy€corrupted€and€prostituted€it."€€òòThe€Outline€of€History:€Ð Ð  ÐBeing€a€Plain€History€of€Mankindóó,€ed.€Raymond€Ô_ÔPostgateÔ_Ô,€2€Ô_ÔvolsÔ_Ô.Ð ˜è Ð(Garden€City,€NY:€€Garden€City€Books,€1956),€2:830. žÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú165Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1843,€p.€69;€Commission€onÐ ° ÐEmployment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.€xxiii,€Ô_ÔxxxiiÔ_Ô. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú166Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSteven€R.€Smith,€"Age€in€Old€England,"€òòHistory€Todayóó,€Mar.Ð ° Ð1979,€p.€174.€€ qÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú167Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese€provides€a€good€but€overly€optimistic€summary€ofÐ ° Ðhow€well€Ô_ÔslaveownersÔ_Ô€cared€for€their€elderly€slaves:€€òòRoll,Ð xÈ ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€519„23.€€Although€he€carefully€balances€betweenÐ @ Ðan€optimistic€and€pessimistic€interpretation,€a€tilt€toward€aÐ X Ðpessimistic€viewpoint€(like€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô's)€is€more€justifiable. õÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú168Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€92,€313;€cf.€p.€246.€€While€noting€theÐ ° Ðpro„slavery€argument€that€their€elderly€were€not€isolated€fromÐ xÈ Ðtheir€family€and€friends€as€the€laborers€confined€to€theÐ @ æ Ðworkhouse€in€England€were,€she€still€found€old€slaves€wereÐ ° Ðterribly€neglected€on€her€husband's€estates.€€The€workhouseÐ xÈ Ðinfirmary€that€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô€described€was€certainly€better€than€this,Ð @ Ðas€mentioned€above€(p.€110). lÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú169Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóóòòóó,€p.€303;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€14;Ð ° ÐòòNarrative€of€Jonathan€Walkeróó;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€262. ^Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú170Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIn€his€"Rules€of€Highland€Plantation,"€Bennet€BarrowÐ ° Ðenunciated€clearly€the€price€of€retirement€and€guaranteedÐ xÈ Ðsubsistence€at€his€perceived€expense,€including€in€sickness€andÐ @ Ðretirement:€€"If€I€maintain€him€in€his€old€age,€when€he€isÐ X Ðincapable€of€rendering€either€himself€or€myself€any€service,€am€IÐ Ð  Ðnot€entitled€to€an€exclusive€right€to€his€time€[when€younger]"?€Ð ˜è ÐDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€407.òòóó€€Clearly,€a€slave€paid€dearly€inÐ ` ° Ðreturn€for€the€security€his€master€(actually,€fellow€slaves)Ð ( x Ðprovided€for€him€in€old€age. èÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú171Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€62;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð ° Ð2:251.€€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô€eloquently€observed€that€slavery€stultifies€theÐ xÈ Ðtalents€and€abilities€of€its€human€chattels€while,€òòin€practiceóó,Ð @ æ Ðproviding€"no€safety€against€occasional€suffering€for€want€ofÐ ° Ðfood€among€Ô_ÔlabourersÔ_Ô,€or€even€against€their€starvation€any€moreÐ xÈ Ðthan€the€competitive€system"€(i.e.,€capitalism). UÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú172Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€247;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.Ð ° Ð522;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€63. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú173Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€313;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.Ð ° Ð69;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€22;€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð313;€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:209. ßÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú174Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€pp.€21„22. %Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú175Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€p.€21;€òòóóGenovese,€òòRoll,Ð ° ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€522„23. fÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú176Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€318.€€By€citing€theÐ ° Ðhighest€available€figure€for€slave€life€expectancy€(36€years),Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô€try€to€deny€the€force€of€these€figures€inÐ @ Ðdemonstrating€differential€treatment€for€slaves€and€free€whites.€Ð X ÐThe€higher€black€death€rates€result€from€black€women€having€aÐ Ð  Ðhigher€fertility€rate€concomitant€with€a€higher€infant€mortalityÐ ˜è Ðrate,€and€from€the€South's€(allegedly)€less€healthy€climate.€Ð ` ° ÐòòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:124„25;€2:243„44.€€Substantially€lowerÐ ( x Ðestimates€for€life€expectancy€for€slaves€are€actually€moreÐ ð @ Ðcommon,€such€as€Ô_ÔZelnickÔ_Ô's€32€years,€Farley's€27.8€for€femaleÐ ¸   Ðslaves,€and€Ô_ÔElbenÔ_Ô's€32.6€for€the€same.€€They€ignore€theÐ € Ð  Ðimplications€of€higher€mortality€rates€for€black€infants€inÐ H ˜  Ðdemonstrating€how€material€conditions€for€slaves€were€worse€thanÐ `  Ðfor€free€whites.€€The€idea€the€South's€climate€wasÐ Ø(  Ðepidemiologically€inferior€to€the€North's€is€also€disputable.€Ð  ð  æ ÐThe€North„South€difference€in€infant€mortality€can€easilyÐ ° Ðattributed€to€the€difference€between€bondage€and€freedom,€insteadÐ xÈ Ðof€a€less€healthy€climate.€€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,€òòReckoning€withÐ @ ÐSlaveryóó,€pp.€283„87.€€Conceptually,€the€major€point€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_ÔÐ X Ðimplicitly€makes€is€still€true:€€Of€all€those€born,Ð Ð  Ðproportionately€fewer€black€babies€lived€to€be€elderly€than€whiteÐ ˜è Ðones.€€See€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€319. *Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú177Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSmith,€"Age€in€Old€England,"€òòóóp.€174;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð364„67. àÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú178Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€46,€47„48,€318„19. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú179Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€p.€143. ¾Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú180Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavid€Thomson,€"Welfare€and€the€Historians,"€in€òòThe€WorldÐ ° ÐWe€Have€Gained:€€Histories€of€Population€and€Social€Structureóó,Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔedsÔ_Ô.€Lloyd€Bonfield,€Ô_ÔR.M.Ô_Ô€Smith,€and€K.€Ô_ÔWrightsonÔ_Ô€(Oxford,€1986),Ð @ Ðp.€370;€cited€by€Ô_ÔRushtonÔ_Ô,€"The€Poor€Law,"òòóó€p.€151.€€See€alsoÐ X ÐÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€364„67. ÊÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú181Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€36. WÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú182Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€46„47,€55;€Committee€on€theÐ ° ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòóóòòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€35. ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú183Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€131„33;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€257;Ð ° ÐCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1843,€p.€220.€Thomas€Ô_ÔSockettÔ_Ô,€theÐ xÈ Ðrector€of€Ô_ÔPetworthÔ_Ô,€Sussex,€said€pensions€of€2s./week€were€normalÐ @ Ðfor€older€people€not€working€in€Ô_ÔPetworthÔ_Ô€parish.€€Committee€onÐ X ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóóòòóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€15. NÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú184Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1837,€first€report,Ð ° Ðpreface€to€minutes€of€evidence,€p.€7.€€See€also€p.€9. •Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú185Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,òòóó€p.€1.€€See€also€p.€15.€€Admittedly,€he€said€heÐ ° Ðwould€have€voted€for€the€New€Poor€Law€had€he€been€a€Member€ofÐ xÈ ÐParliament.€€Ibid.,€second€report,€p.€23;€first€report,€p.€16.€Ð @ ÐBut,€going€against€Ô_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô€and€Arch's€stereotype€of€the€uncaring,Ð X ÐTory„supporting€establishment€churchman,€he€harshly€condemnedÐ Ð  Ðsome€parts€of€the€law€that€injured€the€poor. ¨Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú186Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€p.€21.€€Only€those€with€no€family€to€care€for€themÐ ° Ðended€up€in€the€workhouse.€€Otherwise,€they€lived€with€familyÐ xÈ Ðmembers€(including€wives),€and€received€pensions€of€two€shillingsÐ @ Ða€week. [Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú187Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€p.€31.€€Arch€estimated€the€parish€paid€at€least€oneÐ ° Ðshilling€a€week€more€to€place€an€elderly€person€in€the€workhouseÐ xÈ Ðthan€to€give€a€relief€pension€of€two€shillings€a€week.€€"As€hasÐ @ Ðbeen€calculated,€it€costs€the€ratepayers€from€three€shillings€andÐ X Ðten€pence€to€four€shillings€a€week€per€adult."€€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.Ð Ð  Ð259„60. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú188Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€pp.€38,€41,€43.€€The€assistant€Poor€LawÐ ° ÐCommissioner,€William€Henry€Ô_ÔTooveyÔ_Ô€Hawley,€flatly€denied€thatÐ xÈ Ðsome€rule€prohibited€the€relieving€of€the€aged€and€infirm€atÐ @ Ðhome.€€Ibid.,€p.€66.€€Farmer€Edward€Butt,€having€worked€manyÐ X Ðyears€as€a€relieving€officer€for€the€poor€under€Gilbert's€act€forÐ Ð  Ðthe€Ô_ÔPetworthÔ_Ô€parish,€believed€the€elderly€were€better€off€underÐ ˜è Ðthe€new€law€than€before.€€Ibid.,€second€report,€p.€4. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú189Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óòòóó"Of€course,€out„relief€of€sorts€continued€for€some€elderlyÐ ° Ðpeople;€although€one€should€be€wary€of€Ô_ÔgeneralisingÔ_Ô€arguments€onÐ xÈ Ð'continuity'€before€and€after€1834€which€are€based€on€Norfolk€andÐ @ ÐSuffolk."€€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€p.€131. NÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú190Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€257„60;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€135„37;Ð ° ÐSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€153,€156. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú191Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€child€labor,€see€Thompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€349;€Douglass,Ð ° ÐòòNarrativeóó,€pp.€24„26. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú192Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€121;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.Ð ° Ð94;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€72,€105;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:131,Ð xÈ Ð239;€Morgan,€"Ownership€of€Property€by€Slaves,"òòóó€pp.€402„3;Ð @ ÐWashington,€òòUp€from€Slaveryóó,€p.€17;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,Ð X Ðpp.€502,€505.€€Armstrong€notes€"adolescence"€as€the€age€for€goingÐ Ð  Ðinto€the€fields.€€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€92;€See€Peter€Ô_ÔKolchinÔ_Ô,Ð ˜è Ð"More€Time€on€the€Cross?€€An€Evaluation€of€Robert€William€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô'sÐ ` ° ÐWithout€Consent€or€Contract,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€58Ð ( x Ð(Aug.€1992):€494.€€ ZÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú193Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€78„79;€Douglass,Ð ° ÐòòNarrativeóó,€pp.€43„44;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:239. ’Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú214Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔJoseph,€Hugh,€and€Jonathan€Bryan,€all€of€a€wealthyÐ ° Ðcolonial€planter€family€in€South€Carolina,€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôwere€Ô_Ôsuch€Ô_Ôidealists.Ô_ԀРxÈ ÐSee€Alan€Gallay,€"The€Origins€of€Slaveholders'€Paternalism:€Ð @ ÐGeorge€Whitefield,€the€Bryan€Family,€and€the€Great€Awakening€inÐ X Ðthe€South,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€53€(Aug.€1987):€€383„88. ãÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú194Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€28„29;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð ° Ð1:39.€€This€incident€illustrates€again€how€whites,€with€blacks€inÐ xÈ Ðbondage,€willingly€engaged€in€"race€mixing"€that€would€haveÐ @ Ðappalled€post„reconstruction€segregationists.€€"When€the€Ô_ÔnegroÔ_Ô€isÐ X Ðdefinitely€a€slave,€it€would€seem€that€the€alleged€naturalÐ Ð  Ðantipathy€of€the€white€race€to€associate€with€him€is€lost."Ð ˜è Ð(1:40). ÕÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú195Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€505„6€(games€played),€510„11Ð ° Ð(mask€training);€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€69;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,Ð xÈ ÐòòJournalóó,€57„58;€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€378;€ Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú196Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€508;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€312„Ð ° Ð13.€€Note€p.€31€also,€where€no€adult€was€in€sight€supervising€theÐ xÈ æ Ðbabies€or€the€baby„Ô_ÔmindersÔ_Ô€in€a€cabin;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ ° ÐDownóó,€126. VÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú197Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€66,€121,€122,€312.€€She€rebukes€aÐ ° ÐòòTimesóó€[of€London?]€correspondent€who€noted€on€the€estate€heÐ xÈ Ðvisited€that€"all€the€children€below€the€age€of€twelve€wereÐ @ Ðunemployed."€€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô€had€a€similar€perspective:€€"Until€theÐ X ÐÔ_ÔnegroÔ_Ô€is€big€enough€for€his€Ô_ÔlabourÔ_Ô€to€be€plainly€profitable€toÐ Ð  Ðhis€master,€he€has€no€training€to€application€or€method,€but€onlyÐ ˜è Ðto€idleness€and€carelessness."€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:131 /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú198Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€44;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,Ð ° Ð56;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€507. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú199Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:131. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú200Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€40,€45„46,€49„66,€309,€348„50.€€One€of€theÐ ° Ðquestionnaires€which€parishes€filled€out€as€part€of€the€inquiriesÐ xÈ Ðinto€the€Old€Poor€Law,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1834,€vol.€xxx,€reported€this€processÐ @ Ðat€work€clearly.€€Ô_ÔSelattynÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔShropshireÔ_Ô€reported:€€"Women€andÐ X ÐChildren€are€not€now€so€much€employed€as€formerly,€becauseÐ Ð  ÐÔ_ÔlabouringÔ_Ô€men€are€so€plentiful,€and€their€Ô_ÔlabourÔ_Ô€so€cheap."€€HughÐ ˜è ÐCunningham,€"The€Employment€and€Unemployment€of€Children€inÐ ` ° ÐEngland€c.€1680„1851,"€òòPast€and€Presentóó,€no.€126€(Feb.€1990),Ð ( x Ð135.€ ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú201Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€67;€Horn,€"Child€Workers,"€173;Ð ° ÐCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€ixÐ xÈ Ð(generally),€xiii€(Northumberland),€xxvi€(Northampton),€xviiÐ @ Ð(Fens),€xx€(Yorkshire);€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€29.òòóó »Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú202Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔCunningham,€"Employment€of€Children,"€strikingly€coversÐ ° Ðthis€subject€in€depth,€noting€that€many€saw€industry€and€miningÐ xÈ Ðas€a€solution€to€the€problem€of€idle€children€burdening€theirÐ @ Ðparents.€€He€concludes€on€p.€150:€€"It€is€usualÔ_Ô€to€think€of€theÐ X Ðschool€rescuing€the€working€child€from€the€factory;€it€is€moreÐ Ð  Ðplausible€to€think€of€it€removing€the€idle€child€from€the€street.€Ð ˜è ÐIn€1871€when€the€number€in€the€census€'at€home'€was€still€high,Ð ` ° Ðthe€Registrar„General€suggested€that€school€was€the€proper€placeÐ ( x Ðfor€these€'unemployed€children'."€€Also€note€Mary€B.€Rose,Ð ð @ Ð"Social€Policy€and€Business;€Parish€Apprenticeship€and€the€EarlyÐ ¸   ÐFactory€System€1750„1834,"€òòBusiness€Historyóó€12€(Oct.€1989):6„7;Ð € Ð  Ðthe€statements€by€Defoe€and€Pitt€in€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòTownÐ H ˜  ÐÔ_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€144.€€Thompson's€critique€of€child€labor,€alluded€toÐ `  Ðabove€(p.€119),€when€placed€amidst€such€evidence€for€childÐ Ø(  Ðunemployment,€largely€applies€to€those€children€employed€in€theÐ  ð  Ðfactory€and€mining€districts,€where€the€labor€intensity€andÐ h¸  Ðlength€of€the€workday€Ô_Ôwere€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôundeniably€Ô_Ôextremely€Ô_Ôdemanding.Ô_Ô€ HÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú203Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð ° Ðxvii,€xviii;€Horn,€"Child€Workers,"€174. RÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú204Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSonya€O.€Rose€raisesÔ_Ô€a€similar€point€in€connection€withÐ ° Ðthe€household€economy€functioning€in€domestic€industry,€notÐ xÈ Ðagriculture.€€When€children€are€working€for€their€parentsÐ @ Ðdirectly€and€not€for€an€employer€for€Ô_Ôwages,€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôthose€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôgathering€Ô_ÔÔ_ÔdataÐ X ÐÔ_ÔÔ_Ôfor€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôa€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôcensus€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôare€Ô_ÔÔ_Ômore€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôapt€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôto€Ô_Ôoverlook€Ô_ÔthemÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô.Ô_Ô€€See€Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔRose,Ô_Ô€"Proto„Ð Ð  ÐIndustry,€Women's€Work€and€the€Household€Economy€in€theÐ ˜è ÐTransition€to€Industrial€Capitalism,"€òòJournal€of€Family€HistoryóóÐ ` ° Ð13€(1988):188.€ Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú205Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCunningham,€Ô_Ô"Employment€of€Children,"€140„47.€€Even€theÔ_ÔÐ ° Ð1867„68€Report€found,€at€least€in€the€Thames€Valley€area,€onlyÐ xÈ Ðrelatively€few€Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔemployedÔ_Ô€under€the€age€of€ten€and€that€only€oneÐ @ Ðeleventh€under€age€Ô_ÔeightÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô€were€employed.€€Commission€on€EmploymentÐ X Ðin€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€p.€xxix. –Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú206Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô€develops€this€theme€at€great€length€in€òòAnnalsóó.€€NoteÐ ° Ðespecially€pp.€67„103,€210„219,€322„327.€€See€also€Cunningham,Ð xÈ Ð"Employment€of€Children,"€123,€148. ÕÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú207Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCunningham,€"Employment€of€Children,"€120. ÛÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú208Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€p.Ð ° ÐÔ_Ôxi€(recommend€age),Ô_Ô€xxi€(Cambridge),€xxvi€(Northampton),€Ô_ÔxxxiÔ_ÔÐ xÈ Ð(Thames);€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€247. CÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú209Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThis€evidence,€but€coming€from€the€English€side,€Ô_ÔbacksÐ ° ÐGenovese's€claim:€€"The€southern€slaveholders€knew,€too,€thatÐ xÈ Ðtheir€slave€childrenÔ_Ô€fared€closer€to€the€style€of€their€ownÐ @ Ðpampered€children€than€to€that€of€the€children€ofÐ X V ÐÔ_ÔnonslaveholdersÔ_Ô,€who€had€to€help€their€parents€by€doing€roughÐ ° Ðwork€at€early€ages."€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€Ô_Ôp.€504.€€Again,€KembleÐ xÈ Ðand€others€raise€an€important€point:€Ô_Ô€Was€keeping€a€child€inÐ @ Ðidleness€without€an€education€better€than€putting€them€to€workÐ X Ðunder€their€parents'€eyes€(as€opposed€to€a€textile€mill€ownerÐ Ð  ÐÔ_ÔownerÔ_Ô's€impersonal€supervision€and€high€intensity€work€regime)? cÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú210Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€pp.€23„27,€98;€Committee€onÐ ° ÐAllotments,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1843,€pp.€211,€222,€225,€226,€227;€Commission€onÐ xÈ ÐEmployment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.€xivÐ @ Ð(Northumberland),€xxiv€(Yorkshire);€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:73„74. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú211Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:65„67,€73„74.€€Somerville€portrayedÐ ° Ðlaborers'€children€as€picking€flowers€also.€€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€281„Ð xÈ Ð82;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€p.€68;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€27,Ð @ Ð28,€33„34.€òòóó ¢Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú212Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPlato,€òòRepublicóó,€338c;€òòThe€Collected€Dialogues€of€PlatoÐ ° ÐIncluding€the€Lettersóó,€Ô_ÔBollingenÔ_Ô€Series€Ô_ÔLXXIÔ_Ô,€Ô_ÔedsÔ_Ô.€Edith€HamiltonÐ xÈ Ðand€Ô_ÔHuntington€Cairns,€trans.€of€òòRepublicóó,€Paul€ShoreyÐ @ Ð(Princeton,€NJ:€€Princeton€University€Press,Ô_Ô€Ô_Ô1961),Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô€588. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú213Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_Ôcf.€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€161„68.€€Of€course,€thisÐ ° Ðanalysis€assumesÔ_Ô€the€elite€and€masses€of€the€same€society€mostlyÐ xÈ Ðshare€the€same€religion.  ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú215Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€69. bÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú216Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Winthrop€D.€Jordan,€òòThe€White€Man's€Burden:€Ð ° ÐHistorical€Origins€of€Racism€in€the€United€Statesóó€(New€York:€Ð xÈ ÐOxford€University€Press,€1974),€pp.€91„92. RÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú217Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKemble€mentions€the€two€models.€€òòJournalóó,€pp.€71„72,€131.Ð ° ÐFreedwoman€Jenny€Proctor€of€Alabama€for€a€while€believed€she€hadÐ xÈ Ðno€afterlife€based€upon€what€one€white€preached€to€blacks€on€herÐ @ Ðplantation€because€"we€didn't€have€no€way€finding€out€different.€Ð X ÐWe€didn't€see€no€Bibles."€€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€91. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú218Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€131;€Gallay,€"Origins€of€Slaveholders'Ð ° ÐPaternalism,òòóó"€380„81.€€See€also€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð185;€Paul€C.€Palmer,€"Servant€into€Slave:€€The€Evolution€of€theÐ @ ÐLegal€Status€of€the€Negro€Laborer€in€Colonial€Virginia,"€òòSouthÐ X ÐAtlantic€Quarterlyóó€65€(summer€1966):360„61;€Jordan,€òòWhite€Man'sÐ Ð  ÐBurdenóó,€pp.€89,€97,€98. ÑÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú219Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔNote€the€local€clergyððs€timidity€with€the€one„timeÐ ° ÐoverseerÔ_Ô€of€Kemble's€husband's€estates,€who€opposed€churchÐ xÈ Ðgatherings€off€or€even€on€the€plantations€he€managed.€€Kemble,Ð @ ÐòòJournalóó,€pp.€267„68. ÛÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú220Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€91;€òòóóBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð25„26;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€70„71;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ xÈ ÐPeopleóó,€pp.€225„27;€Blassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€84„89;Ð @ ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€207„9.€€ nÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú221Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€118;€Bassett,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐOverseeróó,€pp.€14„15€(Lunsford€Lane);€Stampp,€òòPeculiarÐ xÈ ÐInstitutionóó,€pp.€158„59;€Robert€Starobin,€"DiscipliningÐ @ ÐIndustrial€Slaves€in€the€Old€South,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó,€53Ð X ÐÔ_ÔÔ_Ô(April€Ô_ÔÔ_Ô1968):€Ô_Ô€113. ûÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú222Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOf€course,€Catholicism€itself€(especially)€is€aÐ ° Ðsyncretistic€combine€of€the€Roman€Empire's€religions,€JewishÐ xÈ Ðbeliefs,€and€doctrines€specifically€originating€from€Jesus€ofÐ @ ÐNazareth€and€Paul.€€Easter€and€Christmas€were€substituted€for€theÐ X ÐPassover€and€Day€of€Atonement,€Sunday€for€Saturday,€the€saintsÐ Ð  Ðand€Mary€replaced€the€gods€of€the€pantheon€concerning€each€havingÐ ˜è Ðspecific€control€of€various€natural€processes€affecting€humanity,Ð ` ° Ðetc. èÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú223Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔFor€Brazil,€note€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€180.€€InÐ ° Ðsome€areas€where€organized€Voodoo€emerged,€such€as€southernÐ xÈ ÐLouisiana,Ô_Ô€the€African€side€of€the€combine€was€Ô_Ôfully€Ô_Ôdominant,€Ô_ÔorÔ_ÔÐ @ Ðeven€Ô_Ôall€Ô_ÔÔ_Ôthat€Ô_Ôwas€Ô_Ôpresent.Ô_Ô€€Blassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€41;Ð X ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€217,€220. bÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú224Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€21„24;€Botkin,€òòLay€MyÐ ° ÐBurden€Downóó,€€36„38;€Mary€F.€Berry€and€John€W.€Blassingame,Ð xÈ Ð"Africa,€Slavery,€&€the€Roots€of€Contemporary€Black€Culture,"Ð @ ÐòòMassachusetts€Reviewóó,€autumn€1977,€515.€€They€overstate€theirÐ X Ðcase€because€the€poor€whites€at€services,€especially€revivalÐ Ð  Ðmeetings,€had€an€emotional€interpretation€of€religion€as€well,Ð ˜è Ðcoming€from€the€Protestant€belief€in€being€"born€again."€€TheÐ ` ° Ðemotional€services€held€by€Methodists€and€others€among€theÐ ( x ÐEnglish€working€class€shows€American€whites€need€not€have€copiedÐ ð @ Ðthe€blacks€in€this€regard.€Ô_Ô€Note€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Ô_ÔInstitutionóó,Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÐ ¸   Ð376„77;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€Ô_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô1:Ô_ÔÔ_Ô265„Ô_Ô71;€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð € Ð  ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€Ô_Ô239„Ô_Ô40. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú225Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€371,€374„76;€William€C.Ð ° ÐSuttles,€Jr.,€"African€Religious€Survivals€as€Factors€in€AmericanÐ xÈ ÐSlave€Revolts,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€56€(April€1971):96„100,Ð @ Ð102;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€182„83. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú226Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted€maintained€that€the€generality€of€preaching€in€theÐ ° ÐSouth€to€the€slaves€had€been€overstated,€that€many€masters€stillÐ xÈ Ðdiscouraged€it.€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:213„14. ñÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú227Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€198.€€One€overseer€kept€the€slavesÐ ° Ðin€his€care€from€going€to€a€nearby€church€because€it€would€joinÐ xÈ Ðtogether€slaves€from€different€plantations.€€This€left€them€withÐ @ Ðservices€just€once€a€month.€€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€220. ¤Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú228Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€89€(West),€331€(Freeman),€353„54€(Troy)Ð ° Ð383„84€(Johnson);€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€231;€Cf.€Cato€ofÐ xÈ ÐAlabama's€testimony€in€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€86. SÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú229Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€332;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€167„68;€Ô_ÔÔ_ÔBrent,Ð ° ÐÔ_ÔòòIncidentsóó,€75. ,Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú230Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€91,€121;€Kemble€uses€a€similarÐ ° Ðanalogy.€€òòJournalóó,€90. ÈÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú231Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKemble,€òòJournalóó,€73€(segregated€communion),€150€(aÔ_Ô€largelyÐ ° Ðsegregated€church);€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€Ô_Ô81Ô_Ô€(Kinney),€147Ð xÈ Ð(Chaney).€€See€Ô_ÔalsoÔ_ÔÔ_ÔÔ_Ô€62,€143,€145„46;€Ô_ÔDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€184;Ð @ ÐGallay,€"Origins€ofÔ_Ô€Slaveholders'€Paternalism,"€386„87;€Olmsted,Ð X ÐòòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:213. rÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú232Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔEven€a€capable€and€conscientious€òòwhiteóó€pastor€could€alsoÐ ° Ðget€awesome€respect€from€his€black€flock:€€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ xÈ ÐKingdomóó,€2:226. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú233Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted€described€the€effects€of€having€a€respectedÐ ° Ðposition€on€their€character.€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:260. ÌÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú234Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€91. öÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú235Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€130„37. /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú236Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€283„85.€€Note€286€also;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,Ð ° ÐòòJournalóó,€84. ÝÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú237Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€88„93,€271„79. =Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú238Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJames€D.€Anderson,€"Aunt€Jemima€in€Dialectics:€€GenoveseÐ ° Ðon€Slave€Culture,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€61€(Jan.€1976):113. :Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú239Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWhat€one€slave€preacher€said€when€he€got€so€excited€duringÐ ° Ðservices€that€his€mask€slipped€may€hint€at€òòóówhat€was€preached€atÐ xÈ Ðsuch€gatherings.€€Forgetting€that€a€white€man€was€watching€him,Ð @ Ðhe€prayed:€€"Free€indeed,€free€from€death,€free€from€hell,€freeÐ X Ðfrom€work,€free€from€white€folks,€free€from€everything."€€HenryÐ Ð  ÐClay€Bruce,€òòThe€New€Man.€€Twenty„nine€Years€a€Slave.€Twenty„nineÐ ˜è ÐYears€a€Free€Manóó€(York,€PA,€1895),€73,€cited€by€Ô_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,Ð ` ° ÐòòSlave€Communityóó,€135„37. ØÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú240Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJames€C.€Scott,€òòDomination€and€the€Arts€of€Resistance€Ð ° ÐHidden€Transcriptsóó€(New€Haven,€CT:€€Yale€University€Press,€1990),Ð xÈ Ðpassim.€€Scott€rejects€the€concept€of€hegemony€altogether,Ð @ Ðwhether€it€be€the€strong€version€in€which€the€masses€gain€falseÐ X Ðconsciousness€from€the€elite's€propaganda€and€then€òòreallyóó€believeÐ Ð  Ðin€the€ideology€of€the€superstructure,€or€the€weak€version,Ð ˜è Ðwherein€the€elite€settles€for€the€masses€simply€becoming€resignedÐ ` ° Ðand€passive€about€their€plight.€€His€rejection€is€too€complete,Ð ( x Ðat€least€for€advanced€industrial€countries€with€a€history€of€freeÐ ð @ Ðelections€and€free€speech.€€In€such€nations,€the€masses€mayÐ ¸   Ðreally€come€to€accept€some€of€the€elite's€ideology€as€being€inÐ € Ð  Ðtheir€self„interest--such€as€property€rights€and€(in€America)€theÐ H ˜  ÐHoratio€Ô_ÔAlgerÔ_Ô€myth.€€(How€else€could€Rush€Ô_ÔLimbaughÔ_Ô,€and€right„Ð `  Ðwing€talk€radio€in€general,€get€such€high€ratings?)€€Still,€ScottÐ Ø(  Ðhas€dealt€a€mighty€blow€against€Ô_ÔGramscianÔ_Ô€theorizing. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú241Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€96. -Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú242Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€351;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€215. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú243Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€41.€€Similarly,€note€the€message€ofÐ ° Ðpatience€and€submission€taught€by€the€Conference€of€MethodistÐ xÈ ÐMinisters,€in€an€address€adopted€in€1819€almost€30€years€afterÐ @ ÐWesleyððs€death:€€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Ô_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€280„81. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú244Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Ô_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€223„24,€329. 6Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú245Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€the€farmersðð€resentment€against€the€tithes,€seeÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€191. +Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú246Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔHobsbawmÔ_Ô€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€109,€118,€130,€152,€158„Ð ° Ð59,€231„33. FÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú247Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô€blasts€the€Established€Church€for€such€abuses,Ð ° Ðwhere€the€parsons€take€their€tithes€for€a€given€parish,€butÐ xÈ Ðtotally€neglect€to€serve€it,€failing€even€to€maintain€a€rectoryÐ @ Ðor€(in€one€Wiltshire€case)€a€church€in€it.€€Ô_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,Ð X Ð365„66,€400„403. ÌÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú248Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€òòóó170.€€Note€also€178. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú249Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€176;€òòóóArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,16„17,€19„20. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú250Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€34;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€7„8,€15,€17„Ð ° Ð18,€21„22,€50„52,€53„54. `Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú251Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€two€types€of€tithes,€see€Ô_ÔJ.W.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔAnscombÔ_Ô,Ð ° Ð"Parliamentary€Enclosure€in€Northamptonshire€€Processes€andÐ xÈ ÐProcedures,"€òòNorthamptonshire€Past€and€Presentóó,€7(1988„89):€413;Ð @ ÐòòThe€Life€and€History€of€Swing€the€Kent€Rick„Burneróó€(London:€€R.Ð X ÐÔ_ÔCarlileÔ_Ô,€1830),€17,€in€Carpenter,€òòRising€of€the€AgriculturalÐ Ð  ÐÔ_ÔLabourersÔ_Ôóó;€"Swing"€letter,€quoted€by€Ô_ÔE.P.Ô_Ô€Thompson,€òòMaking€of€theÐ ˜è ÐEnglish€Working€Classóó,€233. ìÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú252Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔHobsbawmÔ_Ô€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€288„91;€Ô_ÔJ.A.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔHargreavesÔ_Ô,Ð ° Ð"Methodism€and€Ô_ÔLuddismÔ_Ô€in€Yorkshire,€1812„1813,"€òòNorthern€HistoryóóÐ xÈ Ð26€(1990):€€161. 0Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú253Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€354„65;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòTownÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€284„86. üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú254Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Ô_ÔLabourerÔ_Ôóó,€270„71. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú255Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€47„48,€50. IÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú256Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€41;€Rule,€òòÔ_ÔLabouringÔ_Ô€Classesóó,€310„11.€Ð ° ÐThe€Ô_ÔTolpuddleÔ_Ô€case€involved€six€Ô_ÔfarmworkersÔ_Ô€from€Dorset€who€wereÐ xÈ Ðsentenced€in€1834€to€be€transported€for€seven€years€merely€forÐ @ Ðadministering€oaths€despite€forming€a€union€itself€was€legal.€ ÆÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú257Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€42. ÒÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú258Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€114,€313,€402. ÿÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú259Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€177„78.€€Compare€171„72. hÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú260Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:265„71;€Ô_ÔW.E.B.Ô_Ô€Dubois,€cited€byÐ ° ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€239. ÷Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú261Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€149„50.€€The€earlierÐ ° Ðcolonial€period€saw€more€of€an€imbalance€until€near€its€end.€Ð xÈ ÐNote€the€figures€for€King€William€Parish,€Virginia€in€Ô_ÔGundersenÔ_Ô,Ð @ Ð"Double€Bonds€of€Race€and€Sex,"òòóó€354„56.€€For€cases€of€polygamyÐ X Ðbeing€tolerated,€see€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€207,€226.€€Also€noteÐ Ð  ÐÔ_ÔNorthrupÔ_Ô,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€169. ÄÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú262Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€141. /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú263Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔGundersenÔ_Ô,€"Double€Bonds€of€Race€and€Sexòòóó,"€370;€Brent,Ð ° ÐòòIncidentsóó,€4. ÜÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú264Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€60;€for€a€more€optimistic€spin€onÐ ° Ðestate€divisions,€note€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€125„27;Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:232.€€Herbert€G.€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_ÔÐ @ Ðdecisively€shatters€their€optimism€in€òòSlavery€and€the€NumbersÐ X ÐGame:€€A€Critique€of€Time€on€the€Crossóó€(Urbana,€IL:€€UniversityÐ Ð  Ðof€Illinois€Press,€1975),€132„36. WÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú265Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€258;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€198;Ð ° ÐÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:154;€Ball,€òòSlavery€in€the€UnitedÐ xÈ ÐStatesóó,€16.€€See€also€77„78;€Note€Bobby€Frank€Jones,€"A€CulturalÐ @ ÐMiddle€Passage,"€in€Herbert€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,Ð X Ð133„34. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú266Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔF.N.Ô_Ô€Boney,€"Thomas€Stevens,€Antebellum€Georgian,"€òòSouthÐ ° ÐAtlantic€Quarterlyóó€72€(spring€1973):€238„39;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCottonÐ xÈ ÐKingdomóó,€2:3;€Jack€E.€Davis,€"Changing€Places:€€Slave€Movement€inÐ @ Ðthe€South,€òòHistorianóó€55€(summer€1993):€661„63.€€In€passing,€heÐ X Ðnotes€Ô_ÔTadmanÔ_Ô's€estimate€that€no€more€than€30€percent€ofÐ Ð  Ðòòinterregionalóó€slave€migration€came€from€slaves€accompanyingÐ ˜è Ðmoving€owners;€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:48;€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_ÔÐ ` ° Ðand€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€100„105. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú267Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€102;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€45,€121;Ð ° ÐArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€258„60;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€14;Ð xÈ ÐBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€16,€35„36;€òòChambers'sÐ @ ÐJournalóó,€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:375„77.€€One€or€more€of€theseÐ X Ðseven€children€may€have€died€earlier,€long€before€this€sale€tookÐ Ð  Ðplace;€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,òòóó€òòReckoningóó,€132. &Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú268Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBassettÔ_Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€197.€€Note€that€even€with€anÐ ° Ðòòintactóó€nuclear€slave€family€being€relocated€to€their€new€masterÐ xÈ Ðbecause€of€inheritance,€she€was€still€told€that€they€seemed€to€beÐ @ Ðin€distress€over€separating€from€friends€and€other€familyÐ X Ðmembers. ×Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú269Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€316„17. ÚÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú270Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ómy€emphasis,€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€184. {Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú271Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJudith€Kelleher€Ô_ÔSchaferÔ_Ô,€"New€Orleans€Slavery€in€1850€asÐ ° ÐSeen€in€Advertisements,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€47€(Feb.Ð xÈ Ð1981):36.€€ |Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú272Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHerman€Ô_ÔFreudenbergerÔ_Ô€and€Jonathan€B.€Pritchett,€"TheÐ ° ÐDomestic€United€States€Slave€Trade:€€New€Evidence,"€òòJournal€ofÐ xÈ ÐInterdisciplinary€Historyóó€21€(winter€1991):454„55.€€The€source€ofÐ @ Ðthis€figure€was€the€certificates€of€good€character€whichÐ X ÐLouisiana€briefly€required€for€all€slave€sales.€€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€andÐ Ð  ÐÔ_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô€maintain€only€9.3€percent€of€slaves€sold€were€childrenÐ ˜è Ðunder€thirteen€in€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó€based€on€sales€invoices.€€AÐ ` ° Ðlater€sampling€of€theirs€using€these€certificates€of€goodÐ ( x Ðcharacter€of€children€ten€years€old€and€less€produced€a€figure€ofÐ ð @ Ð11.1€percent.€€See€Ô_ÔFreudenbergerÔ_Ô€and€Pritchett,€Ibid.,€p.€453;Ð ¸   ÐÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:49„50.€€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_ÔÐ € Ð  Ðdemolish€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô's€calculations€that€indicated€mostÐ H ˜  Ðyoung€slaves€sold€were€orphans€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€130„131.€Ð `  ÐPritchett€and€Ô_ÔFreudenbergerÔ_Ô's€data€also€refute€their€claim€thatÐ Ø(  Ðthis€Louisiana€law€was€seldom€enforced.€€See€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,Ð  ð  ÐòòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:53„54.€€Significantly,€Ô_ÔSchaferÔ_Ô€found€twenty„Ð h¸  Ðeight€ads€listing€children€separately€under€eleven,€of€whom€onlyÐ 0€  Ðsix€were€said€to€be€orphans,€in€New€Orleans€newspapers€for€1850.€Ð øH  V Ð"New€Orleans€Slavery,"€36„37. &Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú273Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:49;€2:51„52. ÕÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú274Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€58;€cf€the€mention€of€fourteen„,€sixteen„Ð ° Ð,€and€eighteen„year„olds€in€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:80.€€VeryÐ xÈ Ðfew€of€these€children€were€illegitimate:€€Only€three€unmarriedÐ @ Ðmothers€were€on€the€rice€island€estate€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô€stayed€at.€Ð X ÐòòJournalóó,€134„35.€€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô€used€probate€records€toÐ Ð  Ðestablish€a€high€average€age€for€slave€mothers€at€the€first€birthÐ ˜è Ðof€a€child.€€But€they€commit€so€many€fallacies€with€the€dataÐ ` ° Ð(including€equating€òòoldest€survivingóó€child€with€a€first€birth€atÐ ( x Ðthe€time€of€probate),€any€re„examination€of€the€evidence€totallyÐ ð @ Ðcontroverts€their€claims.€€See€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€theÐ ¸   ÐCrossóó,€1:138„39;€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€136„46;Ð € Ð  ÐÔ_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€140„52.òòóó VÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú275Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€the€general€discussion€about€this€issue,€note€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_ÔÐ ° Ðand€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:48„53;€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€inÐ xÈ ÐDavid,€òòReckoningóó,€112„33;€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,Ð @ Ð108„23. €Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú276Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€341,€361;€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_ÔÐ ° Ðin€David,€òòReckoningóó,€128„29. -Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú277Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€29€(William€Johnson),€30€(Ô_ÔTubmanÔ_Ô),€52Ð ° Ð(George€Johnson),€179€(Jackson).€€Since€the€WPA€narratives€areÐ xÈ Ðheavily€weighted€towards€those€who€were€only€children€while€inÐ @ Ðbondage,€they€might€not€often€mention€this€kind€of€fear,€which€isÐ X Ðthe€province€of€adults. ‰Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú278Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€106;€òòChambers's€Journalóó,Ð ° ÐÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:374,€377;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€97. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú279Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€18.€€Note€also€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,Ð ° ÐRollóó,€495;€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€287.€€AfterÐ xÈ Ðemancipation,€the€forced€equality€in€field€work€soon€disappeared,Ð @ Ðfor€the€freedmen€and€Ô_ÔfreedwomenÔ_Ô€preferred€and€adopted€the€sexualÐ X Ðdivision€of€labor€that€the€whites€had.€€See€Dill,€"Our€Mothers'Ð Ð  ÐGrief,"òòóó€422. ŒÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú280Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€damaged€father's€role,€see€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiarÐ ° ÐInstitutionóó,€344„46.€€The€two„thirds€figure€is€based€on€a€1866Ð xÈ Ðmilitary€census€of€ex„slaves€who€lived€in€Princess€Anne€County,Ð @ ÐVirginia,€where€the€blacks€questioned€stated€who€owned€them€inÐ X Ð1863.€€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô,€òòSlavery€and€the€Number€Gamesóó,€105;€Ô_ÔNorthrupÔ_Ô,Ð Ð  ÐòòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€169;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€60;€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð ˜è ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€486„89;€Ô_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€179. ÉÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú281Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòNarrative€of€the€Life€of€Moses€Ô_ÔGrandyÔ_Ôóó,€16,€quoted€in€PeterÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔKolchinÔ_Ô,€òòUnfree€Labor:€€American€Slavery€and€Russian€SerfdomóóÐ xÈ Ð(Cambridge:€€Ô_ÔBelknapÔ_Ô€Press,€Harvard€University€Press,€1987),€211.€Ð @ ÐCf.€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€175;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€41„43;€Ô_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,Ð X ÐòòSlave€Communityóó,€172. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú282Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThis€practice€also€increased€the€men's€feeling€ofÐ ° Ðindependence€because€they€received€the€freedom€to€walk€to€anotherÐ xÈ Ðplantation€using€a€standard€or€monthly€pass.€€Bennet€BarrowÐ @ Ðopposed€allowing€off„plantation€marriages€in€part€because:€€"3d„„Ð X Ðit€creates€a€feeling€of€Ô_ÔindependanceÔ_Ô,€from€being,€of€right,€outÐ Ð  Ðof€the€control€of€the€masters€for€a€time."€€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ ˜è ÐLifeóó,€408. ³Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú283Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDeborah€G.€White,€"Female€Slaves:€€Sex€Roles€and€Status€inÐ ° Ðthe€Antebellum€Plantation€South,"€òòJournal€of€Family€Historyóó,€FallÐ xÈ Ð1983,€255;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€408,€409;€On€the€frequency€ofÐ @ Ðmarrying€abroad,€see€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,òòóó€òòReckoningóó,€103„4Ð X Ðand€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:81;€On€seeing€the€"grass€isÐ Ð  Ðgreener€elsewhere,"€see€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€155.€€TheÐ ˜è Ðbondsmen€also€had€good€reasons€for€their€custom,€but€it€had€itsÐ ` ° Ðintrinsic€costs,€including€increased€involuntary€separations. 2Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú284Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€147;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€166„68. $Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú285Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€166;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ ° ÐDownóó,65;€€Mary€Reynolds€of€Louisiana€disliked€a€similar€casualÐ xÈ Ðwedding€she€had€(124).€€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:81;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,Ð @ ÐòòJournalóó,€167. öÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú286Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€342„43. ÏÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú287Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Dill,€"Our€Mothers'€Grief,"€418. òÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú288Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBassettÔ_Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€84. ïÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú289Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:81. ‰Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú290Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:225„27.€€The€latter€two€casesÐ ° Ðmay€be€of€free€blacks€instead€of€slaves;€the€context€does€notÐ xÈ Ðmake€it€completely€clear. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú291Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€difference€of€slave€parents,€see€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiarÐ ° ÐInstitutionóó,€346;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€95,€174;€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ xÈ ÐLifeóó,€201,€269,€432;€Ô_ÔBassettÔ_Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€141,€264„65. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú292Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€228;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€44„Ð ° Ð45. “Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú293Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€71„72€(Ô_ÔNicholsÔ_Ô);€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€172.€€True,€she€put€an€optimistic€(perhaps€nostalgic)Ð xÈ Ðspin€on€the€situation:€€"But€we€got€'long€Ô_ÔjusÔ_Ô'€fine!"€Ð @ ÐNevertheless,€today€it€is€known€that€on€average€the€uncertaintyÐ X Ðstemming€from€family€instability€produces€far€more€children€withÐ Ð  Ðmajor€psychological€problems€than€stable€family€environments€do.€Ð ˜è ÐA€case€of€a€Kentucky€slave€woman€having€seven€children€by€sevenÐ ` ° Ðdifferent€men€appears€in€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€346. þÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú294Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€55,€89,€102,€156. ‰Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú295Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓClarence€L.€Ô_ÔMohrÔ_Ô,€"Slavery€in€Ô_ÔOglethorpeÔ_Ô€County,€Georgia,Ð ° Ð1773„1865,"€òòÔ_ÔPhylonÔ_Ôóó,€32€(Spring€1972):€€11. ûÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú296Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNote€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€359„60. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú297Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€35,€105,€193. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú298Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€164;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ ° ÐDownóó,€161„62;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€84.€€While€exaggerating€theÐ xÈ Ðfrequency€of€arranged€marriages,€Franklin€makes€insightfulÐ @ Ðcomments€on€their€negative€consequences.€€òòFrom€Slavery€toÐ X ÐFreedomóó,€148. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú299Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:133,€2:110;Ð ° ÐBentley€Glass€and€Ô_ÔC.C.Ô_Ô€Li,€"The€Dynamics€of€Racial€Intermixture„„Ð xÈ Ðan€Analysis€Based€on€the€American€Negro,"€òòAmerican€Journal€ofÐ @ ÐHuman€Geneticsóó€5€(Mar.€1953):€10;€D.F.€Roberts,€"The€Dynamics€ofÐ X ÐRacial€Intermixture€in€the€American€Negro--Some€AnthropologicalÐ Ð  ÐConsiderations,"€òòAmerican€Journal€of€Human€Geneticsóó€7€(Dec.Ð ˜è Ð1955):€361„62,€366;€Bentley€Glass,€"On€the€Unlikelihood€ofÐ ` ° ÐSignificant€Admixture€of€Genes€from€the€North€American€Indians€inÐ ( x Ðthe€Present€Composition€of€the€Negroes€of€the€United€States,"Ð ð @ ÐòòAmerican€Journal€of€Human€Geneticsóó€7€(Dec.€1955):€371;€T.€EdwardÐ ¸   ÐReed,€"Caucasian€Genes€in€American€Negroes,"€in€Laura€Ô_ÔNewellÔ_ÔÐ € Ð  ÐMorris,€ed.,€òòHuman€Populations,€Genetic€Variation,€and€EvolutionóóÐ H ˜  Ð(San€Francisco:€€Chandler€Publishing€Company,€1971),€427„48;Ð `  ÐÔ_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€146,€154;€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,Ð Ø(  ÐòòReckoningóó,€283„84. FÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú300Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€151.€€Ô_ÔGutmanÔ_Ô€andÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔSutchÔ_Ô€argue€the€Evans€and€Bullock€county€results€are€biasedÐ xÈ Ðdownwards€because€they€say€mulattoes€were€excluded€from€them€andÐ @ Ðbecause€proportionately€more€mulattoes€migrated€north€or€toÐ X ÐSouthern€cities€than€blacks.€€But€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô€maintainÐ Ð  Ðthat€southern€urban€areas€even€in€1850„1860€had€aÐ ˜è Ðdisproportionately€high€percentage€of€mulattoes€when€theirÐ ` ° Ðmovements€were€still€(largely)€regulated€by€Ô_ÔslaveholdersÔ_Ô.€€òòTimeÐ ( x Ðon€the€Crossóó,€2:113.€€Clearly,€more€miscegenation€happened€inÐ ð @ Ðurban€areas€than€in€rural,€since€the€bondswomen€in€cities€had€farÐ ¸   Ðmore€contact€with€whites€and€were€less€tightly€supervised€than€onÐ € Ð  Ðplantations€and€farms.€€After€discussing€the€reliability€of€theÐ H ˜  Ð1860€Census€reportsðð€figure€that€about€13€percent€of€blackÐ `  ÐAmericans€had€white€ancestry,€Genovese€maintains€mostÐ Ø(  Ðmiscegenation€took€place€in€cities.€€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€414„15. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú301Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGlass€and€Li,€"Dynamics€of€Racial€Intermixture,"€8;€Glass,Ð ° Ð"Unlikelihood€of€Genes€from€North€American€Indians,"€371,€372,Ð xÈ Ð375,€377;€Reed,€"Caucasian€Genes€in€American€Negroes,"€436;€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_ÔÐ @ Ðand€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:111,€112. SÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú302Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBassettÔ_Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€107,€129;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€MyÐ ° ÐBurden€Downóó,€241. ûÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú303Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWhen€describing€the€greater€number€of€roles€a€slave€couldÐ ° Ðplay€in€Latin€America€compared€to€the€United€States,€Stanley€E.Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔElkinsÔ_Ô€wrongly€declares:€€"He€[the€Latin€American/CaribbeanÐ @ Ðslave]€could€be€a€husband€and€father€(for€the€American€slavesÐ X Ðthese€roles€had€virtually€no€meaning)."€€Conspicuously,€Ô_ÔElkinsÔ_ÔððsÐ Ð  Ðsummary€judgment€overlooks€the€slave€òòwomanóó€and€her€roles€as€wifeÐ ˜è Ðand€mother,€which€(following€the€insights€of€Gilder€in€òòMen€andÐ ` ° ÐMarriageóó)€are€much€more€durable€and€less€socially€constructedÐ ( x Ðthan€the€manððs€roles€as€husband€and€father.€€By€apparently€takingÐ ð @ Ðthe€universal€"he"€of€his€sentence€too€narrowly€and€literally,€heÐ ¸   Ðaccidentally€eliminated€half€of€all€American€slaves'€experienceÐ € Ð  Ðwith€family€life!€€òòSlavery:€€A€Problem€in€American€InstitutionalÐ H ˜  Ðand€Intellectual€Lifeóó€(Chicago:€€University€of€Chicago€Press,Ð `  Ð1959),€136.€€The€imbalanced€sex€ratios€in€which€men€outnumberedÐ Ø(  Ðwomen€on€many€Caribbean€and€Latin€American€plantations€undermineÐ  ð  Ðhis€argument€as€well. çÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú304Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€359„60. •Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú305Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔEugenÔ_Ô€Weber,€òòPeasants€into€Frenchmen:€€The€ModernizationÐ ° Ðof€Rural€France,€1870„1914óó€(Stanford,€California:€€StanfordÐ xÈ ÐUniversity€Press,€1976),€167„91;€Ô_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,€òòDevelopment€of€EuropeanÐ @ ÐSocietyóó,€3„12,€31„32;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€9„14,€369„73,€399„410.€€AlsoÐ X Ðnote,€as€implicitly€siding€with€Weber€and€Ô_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,€George€Ô_ÔHuppertÔ_Ô,Ð Ð  ÐòòAfter€the€Black€Death:€€A€Social€History€of€Early€Modern€EuropeóóÐ ˜è Ð(Bloomington,€IN:€€Indiana€University€Press,€1986),€2„7,€117„27. >Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú306Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,€òòDevelopment€of€European€Societyóó,€5,€7;€Weber,Ð ° ÐòòPeasants€into€Frenchmenóó,€175. éÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú307Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€10,€370.€ GÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú308Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€11,€370;€Ô_ÔHuppertÔ_Ô,€òòAfter€the€Black€Deathóó,Ð ° Ð118. äÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú309Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€367. ÖÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú310Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWeber,€òòPeasants€into€Frenchmenóó,€175.€ üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú311Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,€òòDevelopment€of€European€Societyóó,€4. äÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú312Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€367. Ô_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔW.E.B.Ô_Ô€Dubois,€òòThe€Negro€American€Familyóó,€ed.€Ô_ÔW.E.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔBurghardtÔ_Ô,Ð ° ÐAtlanta€University€Publications,€no.€13€(Atlanta:€€AtlantaÐ xÈ ÐUniversity€Press,€1908),€47,€49,€cited€by€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,Ð @ ÐòòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:201„2. GÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú314Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€53„54n.,€210„17;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€385;Ð ° ÐRule,€òòVital€Centuryóó,€23„25. ÊÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú315Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€38. NÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú316Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,òòóó€354,€395„396.€€Compare€Arch,€òòJosephÐ ° ÐArchóó,€35;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€352. mÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú317Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€47;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€55,€57„58,Ð ° Ð62„63;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€58. çÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú318Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDespite€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô€obviously€stereotypes€Ô_ÔHodgeÔ_Ô,€his€accountÐ ° Ðabout€"The€Low€'Public'"€contains€enough€subtleties€to€show€itÐ xÈ Ðshould€be€taken€seriously.€€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:80„92;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€359„Ð @ Ð63;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€354,€especially€footnote€97;€Ô_ÔGillisÔ_Ô,Ð X ÐòòDevelopment€of€European€Societyóó,€6. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú319Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€354;€Committee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1837,Ð ° Ð50,€53„54.€€However,€in€some€rather€confusing,€seeminglyÐ xÈ Ðcontradictory€testimony,€Arthur€Ô_ÔDaintreyÔ_Ô,€a€member€of€thisÐ @ Ðunion's€board€of€guardians,€said€the€New€Poor€Law€discouraged€theÐ X Ðmarriage€of€already€pregnant€women€because€obtaining€an€order€ofÐ Ð  Ðaffiliation€under€it€cost€so€much.€€ äÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú320Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€356. ÞÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú321Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSince€the€slaves€themselves€chose€to€emulate€theÐ ° Ðtraditional€sexual€division€of€labor€after€emancipation,€thisÐ xÈ Ðimplicitly€was€how€they€judged€their€own€situation.€€To€applyÐ @ ÐÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô's€point€about€letting€the€poor€themselves€à@ddìàjudge€what€constitutes€the€quality€of€life€can€produce€resultsˆÐ X Ðthat€historians€employing€contemporary€values€may€findÐ Ð  Ðdisagreeable.€€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€9„14. óÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú322Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:242„43. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú323Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€1:165„67. ÷Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú324Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:223„24. îÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú372Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDoyle's€list€as€in€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€107„8.€€Cf.€Doyle'sÐ ° Ðfigures€with€Bear€for€the€Royal€Commission€on€Ô_ÔLabourÔ_Ô€in€1893€forÐ xÈ ÐÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô.€€€Agar,€òòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€30. ùÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú325Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€9„10,€13„14,€369€(quote). iÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú326Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓInterestingly,€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô's€approach€turns€the€WhigÐ ° Ðinterpretation€of€history€on€its€head.€What€is€now€privileged€areÐ xÈ Ðthe€values€of€a€majority€of€average€people€in€the€past,€insteadÐ @ V Ðof€emphasizing€the€(relatively€few)€originators€and€developers€ofÐ ° Ðpresent„day€values€in€various€movements€or€individuals€in€theÐ xÈ Ðpast. LÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú327Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAt€least,€by€c.€1700€this€seemed€to€be€the€case€inÐ ° ÐVirginia.€€Ô_ÔKolchinÔ_Ô,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€32;€454„55,€n.€27. úÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú328Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔGundersenÔ_Ô,€"Double€Bonds€of€Race€and€Sex,"€367. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú362Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMarxððs€views€on€alienation€are€described€by€FritzÐ ° ÐÔ_ÔPappenheimÔ_Ô,€òòThe€Alienation€of€Modern€Man:€An€Interpretation€BasedÐ xÈ Ðon€Marx€and€Ô_ÔTonniesÔ_Ô€óó(New€York:€€Modern€Reader€Paperbacks,€1959),Ð @ Ð84„97;€€Ô_ÔE.P.Ô_Ô€Thompson,€"Time,€Work„Discipline,€and€IndustrialÐ X ÐCapitalism,"€òòPast€and€Presentóó,€no.€38€(Dec.€1967),€93,€95;€M.Ð Ð  ÐDorothy€George,€òòEngland€in€Transition:€Life€and€Work€in€theÐ ˜è ÐEighteenth€Centuryóó€(London:€Penguin,€1953)€139,€as€cited€byÐ ` ° ÐRobert€Ô_ÔHessenÔ_Ô€in€Ô_ÔAynÔ_Ô€Rand,€òòCapitalism:€The€Unknown€Idealóó€(NewÐ ( x ÐYork:€The€New€American€Library,€1967),€116„17. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú329Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€28,€121,€122òòóó,€151„52€(Ned). ËÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú330Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDill,€"Our€Mother's€Grief,"€418. ãÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú331Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:216„17,€201„2;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,Ð ° Ð44;€Ô_ÔNorthrupÔ_Ô,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€116„17;€White,€"FemaleÐ xÈ ÐSlaves,"€250,€251.€€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô€maintain€that€"plow€gangsÐ @ Ðwere€confined€almost€exclusively€to€men,€and€predominantly€toÐ X Ðyoung€men,"€but€this€is€unduly€dogmatic.€€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,Ð Ð  Ð1:141.òòóó ,Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú332Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€77,€78,€79,€80,€86,€121,€125,€141,Ð ° Ð234,€243,€247,€252,€304,€305,€310,€315,€344. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú333Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSpinning€as€a€symbol€of€femininity€is€discussed€in€Norton,Ð ° ÐòòLiberty's€Daughtersóó,€15,€18„20. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú334Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€355;€similar€expressions€are€foundÐ ° Ðon€99€and€188. ÓÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú335Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€86,€142,€223,€252,€256,€317,€344. ÛÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú336Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€77,€78,€93,€105,€121,€154,€222,€300,€304. ßÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú337Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€80,€82,€105,€211,€212,€222,€223,€234,€243,€246,Ð ° Ð252,€256,€305,€310,€315,€317.€€The€disproportion€of€men€trashingÐ xÈ Ðcotton€compared€to€women€stems€largely€from€Barrowððs€tendency€toÐ @ Ðhave€the€women€spin€on€rainy€days,€but€the€men€trash€cotton. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú338Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€80,€93,€192,€317. éÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú339Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€217„18,€233;€White,€"Female€Slaves,"€251. ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú340Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:141.€€Note€theÐ ° Ðgeneral€descriptions€of€these€two€groups--"the€òòmenóó€between"€andÐ xÈ Ð"òòmenóó€of€skill"€(my€emphasis)--in€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,Ð @ Ð365„98. }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú341Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓWashington,€òòUp€from€Slaveryóó,€17;€Ô_ÔBlassingameÔ_Ô,€òòSlaveÐ ° ÐCommunityóó,€180„81;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€182„83.€€See€also€79.€Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€for€her€part,€could€scarcely€keep€herself€composed€duringÐ @ Ðthe€latter's€request,€having€been€struck€at€the€sentimentalÐ X Ðcenter€of€her€life;€White,€"Female€Slaves,"€251„53;€Michael€P.Ð Ð  ÐJohnson,€"Smothered€Slave€Infants:€€Were€Slave€Mothers€atÐ ˜è ÐFault?,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€47€(Nov.€1981):€512„14;Ð ` ° ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€353„61. šÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú342Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:206„207.€€ForÐ ° Ðcommunal€cooking,€note€Ô_ÔBassettÔ_Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€31. þÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú343Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€examples€of€this€system,€see€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€23,€68„69;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€22;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCottonÐ xÈ ÐKingdomóó,€1:239;€Boney,€"Blue€Lizard,"€354;€Ô_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ @ ÐDownóó,€147. ÿÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú344Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€31;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€141. .Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú345Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:318;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€212. ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú346Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAngela€Davis,€"Reflections€on€the€Black€Woman's€Role€inÐ ° Ðthe€Community€of€Slaves,"€òòMassachusetts€Reviewóó,€winter„springÐ xÈ V Ð1972,€88„89;€Dill,€"Our€Mothers'€Grief,"€422;€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð ° ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€451,€501. ßÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú347Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€subject€of€women€being€pushed€out€of€the€laborÐ ° Ðforce,€see€Rab€Houston€and€Ô_ÔK.D.M.Ô_Ô€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€"Ô_ÔHistoriographicalÔ_ÔÐ xÈ V ÐReview:€€Proto„Industrialization?€€Cottage€Industry,€SocialÐ ° ÐChange,€and€Industrial€Revolution,"€òòHistorical€Journalóó,€27€(JuneÐ xÈ Ð1984):487;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€21,€40„66,€156„58;€1834€Report,€asÐ @ Ðquoted€in€Cunningham,€"Employment€and€Unemployment€of€Children,"Ð X Ð135.€€For€a€general€analysis€of€menððs€nature€relative€to€womenððsÐ Ð  Ðand€its€influence€on€their€sex€roles,€see€George€Gilder,€òòMen€andÐ ˜è ÐMarriageóó. LÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú348Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAn€evident€exception€to€this€generalization€concernedÐ ° Ðlargely€pastoral€areas€such€as€Dorset,€where€by€the€lateÐ xÈ Ðnineteenth€century€Ô_Ô(cÔ_Ô.€1885),€women€did€field€work€onlyÐ @ Ðuncommonly.€€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€392„394.€€However,€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô'€accountÐ X Ðof€women€field€workers€in€Wiltshire,€another€heavily€pastoralÐ Ð  Ðcounty€in€southwestern€England,€points€in€another€direction.€Ð ˜è ÐÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:61„62. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú349Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMorgan,€òòHarvesters€and€Harvestingóó,€11,€15,€20,€21,€24,€26,Ð ° Ð52,€93,€102,€109„10,€115,€152. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú350Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEven€though€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô's€subtitle€mentions€1660„1900,€his€workÐ ° Ðonly€sparsely€covers€the€last€half€of€the€nineteenth€century,Ð xÈ Ðespecially€when€discounting€his€discussion€of€the€inaccuracies€inÐ @ ÐThomas€Hardy's€portrayal€of€English€rural€life. !Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú351Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€p.Ð ° Ðx. üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú352Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€òòóópp.€xiii,€xiv;€Agar,€"Ô_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Worker,"Ð ° Ð15,€citing€Ô_ÔCulleyÔ_Ô's€investigation€for€this€report.€Ð xÈ ÐConspicuously,€the€sample€Ô_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€farm€employed€fourteen€menÐ @ Ðand€eight€boys,€but€no€women,€while€the€Northumberland€one€did,Ð X Ðbefitting€the€difference€in€the€sexual€division€of€labor€betweenÐ Ð  Ðthe€north€and€south€broadly€speaking,€at€least€for€arableÐ ˜è Ðdistricts. áÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú353Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPatrick,€"Agricultural€Gangs,"€22„26;€Report€on€EmploymentÐ ° Ðin€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.€xvi,€xxii€(Humber„Wold)€xxviÐ xÈ Ð(Northampton);€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:61„62. «Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú354Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ó XÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú355Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€40„45,€158;€Deborah€Ô_ÔValenzeÔ_Ô,€"The€Art€ofÐ ° ÐWomen€and€the€Business€of€Men:€€Women's€Work€and€the€DairyÐ xÈ ÐIndustry€c.€1740„1840,"€òòPast€&€Presentóó,€no.€130€(Feb.€1991),€142„Ð @ Ð69;€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ô€and€his€Mastersóó,€1:85. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú356Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð ° Ðvii,€x€(generally),€xxiv€(Yorkshire),€xiii€(Northumberland),Ð xÈ Ðxviii€(Nottingham/Lincolnshire);€See€Stilton€in€Patrick,Ð @ Ð"Agricultural€Gangs,"€25.€€Ô_ÔCairdÔ_Ô€found€in€Norfolk€condemnationsÐ X Ðof€female€field€work€similar€to€the€1867„68€Reportððs:€€"TheyÐ Ð  Ðcontend€that€it€[regular€field€work€for€women]€has€a€mostÐ ˜è V ÐÔ_ÔdemoralisingÔ_Ô€effect,€causing€women€thus€employed€to€lose€allÐ ° Ðfeeling€of€self„respect,€rendering€them€bad€housewives€whenÐ xÈ Ðmarried,€and€unfit,€from€want€of€experience,€to€exercise€thatÐ @ Ðstrict€economy€in€expenditure,€and€to€provide€those€smallÐ X Ðfireside€comforts€which€are€so€necessary€in€a€Ô_ÔlabourerÔ_Ô's€wife."€Ð Ð  ÐòòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€175„76. ëÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú357Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€147,€cf.€42;€Ô_ÔCobbettÔ_Ô,€òòRural€Ridesóó,Ð ° Ð219„220;€See€also€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€67„71;€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:97,Ð xÈ Ð100„108. °Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú358Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€51„57,€66.€€Although€left€unstated,Ð ° Ðpresumably€the€economic€rationalization€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô€mentions€involvedÐ xÈ Ðthe€increasing€use€of€scythes€in€place€of€sickles€for€theÐ @ Ðharvesting€of€grain.€€But€the€substitution€of€one€for€the€otherÐ X Ðwas€hardly€an€overnight€process,€since€various€methods€ofÐ Ð  Ðharvesting€grain€were€sometimes€employed€side„by„side.€€The€slowÐ ˜è Ðplace€of€technological€progress€still€allowed€some€women€to€doÐ ` ° Ðharvesting€work€even€late€in€the€nineteenth€century.€€Morgan,Ð ( x ÐòòHarvesters€and€Harvestingóó,€17„20,€25„29,€97„98,€115. ëÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú359Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔValenzeÔ_Ô,€"Women's€Work€and€the€Dairy€Industry,"€168;Ð ° ÐCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1867„68,€p.€xviii;Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:62. 3Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú360Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1843,€18,€107;€WilliamÐ ° ÐBear's€report,€1893€Royal€Commission€on€Ô_ÔLabourÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1893„94,Ð xÈ ÐÔ_ÔXXXVÔ_Ô,€as€found€in€Agar,€òòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€31.òòóó ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú361Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€408;€see€also€304,€309,€369„73,€399„410.€Ð ° ÐOf€course,€centralized€work€places€did€have€their€practicalÐ xÈ Ðadvantages€for€home€life,€as€George€M.€Trevelyan€comments:€ð ðTheÐ @ Ðworking€class€home€often€became€more€comfortable,€quiet€andÐ X Ðsanitary€by€casing€to€be€a€miniature€factory.ðð€€òòEnglish€SocialÐ Ð  ÐHistoryóó€(New€York€and€London:€Ô_ÔLongmansÔ_Ô,€Green€&€Company,€1942),Ð ˜è Ð487,€as€cited€by€Robert€Ô_ÔHessenÔ_Ô€in€Ô_ÔAynÔ_Ô€Rand,€òòCapitalism:€TheÐ ` ° ÐUnknown€Idealóó€(New€York:€The€New€American€Library,€1967),€116. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú363Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€note€poetic€lament€concerning€housework€piledÐ ° Ðon€top€of€field€work€by€the€(fictional)€early€eighteenth€centuryÐ xÈ Ðrural€laboring€wife€"Mary€Collier"€in€Thompson,€"Time,€Work„Ð @ ÐDiscipline,€and€Industrial€Capitalism,ðð€79. ‘Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú364Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓA€valiant€attempt€to€square€this€particular€circle€appearsÐ ° Ðin€Joan€Wallach€Scott,€òòGender€and€the€Politics€of€Historyóó€(NewÐ xÈ ÐYork:€€Columbia€University€Press,€1988),€167„77.€€For€the€viewÐ @ Ðthat€traditional€gender€roles€are€not€only€based€on€biologicalÐ X V Ðdifferences,€but€that€society€needs€to€maintain€them€to€avoidÐ ° Ðð ðsexual€suicide,ðð€see€George€Gilder,€òòMen€and€Marriageóó. .Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú365Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€hours€of€work€generally,€see€Ô_ÔStamppÔ_Ô,€òòPeculiarÐ ° ÐInstitutionóó,€73„79;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€60„61;€OneÐ xÈ Ðsugar€plantation€owner€disliked€the€poor€whites€living€nearbyÐ @ Ðbecause€their€lives€of€relative€ease€tended€to€demoralize€hisÐ X Ðbondsmen.€€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:331,€2:37,€88€(work€hours);€Ð Ð  ÐDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€183;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€87;€Ô_ ÔBotkinÔ_ Ô,Ð ˜è ÐòòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€70,€89. øÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú366Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€29;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,Ð ° Ð353.€€€Concerning€overseers,€note€Ô_ ÔBassettÔ_ Ô,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,Ð xÈ Ð12;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€329,€354;€Ô_ ÔBotkinÔ_ Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,Ð @ Ð166;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€50€(Banks),€97€(Ô_ ÔGowensÔ_ Ô),€190€(Sidles).€€Cf.Ð X ÐSidle's€testimony€with€Isaac€Griffin's€on€199€and€John€C„„n's€onÐ Ð  Ð192€from€their€travels€on€the€Mississippi. ¡Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú367Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔBotkinÔ_Ô,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€86;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð ° Ð1:327„328,€337„338,€2:46„47,€239;€Ô_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€303. ôÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú368Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€52,€65,€255,€260,€315;€Douglass,Ð ° ÐòòNarrativeóó,€88;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€52€(Johnson),€260€(Younger),€280Ð xÈ Ð(Brown);€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€210;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCottonÐ @ ÐKingdomóó,€1:103€(Virginia),€2:100€(Mississippi),€2:179„80€(nearÐ X ÐNatchez);€David€and€Ô_ÔTeminÔ_Ô€in€David,òòóó€òòReckoningóó,€211„12.€€TheseÐ Ð  Ðfigures€also€are€based€upon€the€number€of€days€worked€per€year,Ð ˜è Ðnot€just€the€hours€per€day€that€was€worked.€€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð ` ° ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€61;€Ô_ÔFogelÔ_Ô€and€Ô_ÔEngermanÔ_Ô,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:208. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú369Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThomas€Ô_ÔBatchelorÔ_Ô,€òòGeneral€View€of€the€Agriculture€of€theÐ ° ÐCounty€of€Bedfordóó€(London,€1808),€found€in€Agar,€òòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_ÔÐ xÈ ÐFarm€Workeróó,€11;€Thompson,€"Time,€Work„Discipline,€and€IndustrialÐ @ ÐCapitalism,"€60;€Ô_ ÔJeffriesÔ_ Ô,€òòÔ_ ÔHodgeÔ_ Ôóó,€2:57„63,€130,€132.€€He€notedÐ X Ðthat€wages€were€higher€in€summer€than€in€winter,€whichÐ Ð  Ðcorresponds€to€the€number€of€hours€worked€daily. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú370Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€37„38;€Ô_ÔBatchelorÔ_Ô€as€in€Agar,Ð ° ÐòòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€12,€13;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€32;Ð xÈ ÐCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1843,€112.€€The€slaves€normally€hadÐ @ Ðless€time€than€this€for€meals.€€One€of€Douglass's€chiefÐ X Ðcomplaints€against€Covey,€to€whom€his€master€had€rented€him,€andÐ Ð  Ðwith€which€he€later€fought,€was€that€he€routinely€cut€their€mealÐ ˜è Ðtimes€too€short.€€òòNarrativeóó,€88. ùÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú371Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAs€in€Agar,€òòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€19 …Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú373Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€37;€Ô_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:62;€Agar,Ð ° ÐòòÔ_ÔBedfordshireÔ_Ô€Farm€Workeróó,€30. <Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú374Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCf.€this€with€the€discussion€of€Northern€versus€SouthernÐ ° Ðagriculture's€relative€efficiency€in€David,€òòReckoningóó,€209„11. ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú375Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔKembleÔ_Ô,€òòJournalóó,€p.€65;€Ô_ÔOlmstedÔ_Ô,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:103;Ð ° Ð2:100,€179;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€56,€87,€210;Ð xÈ ÐBenjamin€Drew,€òòRefugeeóóòòóó,€pp.€97,€128.€€In€a€number€of€these€casesÐ @ Ðthe€exact€length€of€the€break€is€not€given,€but€where€it€isÐ X Ðstated€or€implied,€often€it€was€for€a€half€hour€or€less,€when€itÐ Ð  Ðwas€not€two€hours€instead! Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú376Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSome€laborers€got€off€at€five€or€six,€and€then€worked€onÐ ° Ðtheir€allotments€from€six€fifteen€or€six€thirty€to€the€end€of€theÐ xÈ Ðevening,€but€this€was€not€done€in€winter.€€Others€worked€on€themÐ @ Ðearly€in€the€morning€at€four€or€five,€before€going€in€to€work€forÐ X Ða€local€farmer€or€landowner.€€Committee€on€Allotments,€òòÔ_ ÔBPPÔ_ Ôóó,€1843,Ð Ð  Ðpp.€1„2,€15. ³Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú377Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€151,€170;€Armstrong,€òòOldÐ ° ÐMassa's€Peopleóó,€p.€42;€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€p.€149;Ð xÈ ÐDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€59€(Williams),€163€(Holmes),€186€(Warren),€360Ð @ Ð(Sanford). Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú378Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGallay,€"Origins€of€Slaveholders'€Paternalism,"€pp.€380,Ð ° Ð393;€For€slaves€receiving€Sunday€off,€see€Botkin,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ xÈ ÐDownóó,€p.€147;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€188,€407;€Olmsted,Ð @ ÐòòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:71„72;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€79,Ð X Ð168;€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€107. ÷Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú379Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€360;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.Ð ° Ð79.€ ÌÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú380Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNorthrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€pp.€148„49. ËÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú381Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€examples€of€slaves€being€given€other€holidays€off,€seeÐ ° ÐArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€134„35;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ xÈ ÐDownóó,€pp.€143„44;€Sudie€Duncan€Sides,€"Slave€Weddings€andÐ @ ÐReligion,"€òòHistory€Todayóó,€24€(Feb.€1974):84. ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú382Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€139,€218,€247,€248,€279.€€SeeÐ ° Ðalso€p.€51;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€92;€Douglass,Ð xÈ ÐòòNarrativeóó,€p.€83;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€13;€Northrup,€òòTwelve€YearsÐ @ Ða€Slaveóó,€p.€163. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú383Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCf.€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€567„69. LÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú384Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€see€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€272,€301„302,Ð ° Ð349,€352.€€Cold€weather€also€could€have€similar€effects:€€Ibid.,Ð xÈ Ðp.€321. !Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú385Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€118,€119,€120,€124,€195,€196,Ð ° Ð198,€232,€233,€258;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€274. ¾Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú386Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€385. QÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú387Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€how€pastoral€areas€were€different€from€arable€inÐ ° Ðseasonal€unemployment,€note€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€40„49;€Hudson,Ð xÈ ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€p.€327.€€Note€also€p.€329;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,Ð @ Ð1:81,€2:71;€Bear,€Royal€Commission€on€Labour,€1893,€as€found€inÐ X ÐAgar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€30„31;€M.C.F.€Morris,€òòTheÐ Ð  ÐBritish€Workman:€€Past€and€Presentóó€(London:€€Oxford€UniversityÐ ˜è ÐPress,€1928),€p.€121.€€The€chapter€this€statement€appears€in€wasÐ ` ° Ðsaid€to€characterize€the€years€1840„1860;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.Ð ( x Ð281. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú388Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€1„2òòóó,€112;Ð ° ÐJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:71„72;€cf.€2:165. çÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú389Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòDiaryóó,€as€found€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€107;Ð ° ÐCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€p.€xiÐ xÈ Ð(rain),€xv€(Durham),€xvi€(Humber„Wold),€xxix€(sickness);€Hudson,Ð @ ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€219„20;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€45. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú390Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€50.€€From€the€slave's€viewpoint,€AllenÐ ° ÐParker€said€nearly€the€same€thing,€as€cited€by€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ xÈ ÐCommunityóó,€p.€317;€Note€Redpath's€phrase€in€Botkin,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ @ ÐDownóó,€p.€2.€€"Day„to„day€resistance"€is€described€in€Stampp,Ð X ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€97„109.€€Note€that€the€revolts€andÐ Ð  æ Ðpitched€battles€were€much€less€common€in€North€American€slaveryÐ ° Ðthan€in€the€Caribbean€and€Latin€America. ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú391Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:60„61. dÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú392Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€407.€€This€comment€attacks€theÐ ° Ðsystem€prevailing€in€Caribbean€slavery,€where€the€slaves€had€toÐ xÈ Ðwork€so€many€days€on€their€masters'€estates,€and€then€spend€soÐ @ Ðmany€days€working€on€their€own€gardens€to€raise€food€forÐ X Ðthemselves,€like€medieval€serfs.€€In€some€cases€the€task€systemÐ Ð  Ðin€mainland€North€America€came€close€to€this. üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú393Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNote€the€testimony€of€James€Smith€of€Virginia€in€Drew,Ð ° ÐòòRefugeeóó,€p.€351. mÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú394Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòóóStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€174.€€For€cases€of€slavesÐ ° Ðnot€whipped,€or€not€whipped€as€adults,€or€masters€who€rarelyÐ xÈ Ðwhipped€their€slaves,€note€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€66,Ð @ Ð143;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€68;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€282;Ð X ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:70.€€While€such€cases€show€thatÐ Ð  Ðmasters€who€never€whipped€their€adult€slaves€were€not€completeÐ ˜è Ðoddities,€they€certainly€constituted€a€mighty€small€minority€ofÐ ` ° Ðthose€who€owned€slaves€in€the€South,€as€Genovese€observed,€òòRoll,Ð ( x ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€p.€64. ïÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú395Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€a€sample€of€the€available€evidence€on€this€point,€seeÐ ° ÐBotkin,€ed.,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€9,€43,€85,€160,€164;€Kemble,Ð xÈ ÐòòJournalóó,€pp.€175,€200;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€180;Ð @ ÐDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€109,€127,€133,€134;€Brent,€òòIncidentsÐ X Ðin€the€Life€of€a€Slave€Girlóó,€p.€197;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€71„Ð Ð  Ð72;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€42,€49,€51,€54,€68,€74„75,€132,€138,€210,Ð ˜è Ð227,€257,€382;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:280. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú396Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:207. "Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú397Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:145;€For€theirÐ ° Ðgeneral€analysis€of€the€Barrow€diary€and€whipping€frequency,€seeÐ xÈ ÐSutch€and€Gutman€in€David,€òòóóòòReckoningóó,€pp.€57„69;€Gutman,€òòSlaveryÐ @ Ðand€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€pp.€17„34;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€181,Ð X Ð191,€192,€205,€239,€437,€439. pÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú398Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€òòóópp.€268,€272,€421,€422;€392„406Ð ° Ð(will);€Gutman€and€Sutch€in€David,€òòóóòòReckoningóó,€pp.€62„63;€Kolchin,Ð xÈ ÐòòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€123. ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú399Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGutman,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€p.€19. }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú400Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:349,€354;€òòóóDavis,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐLifeóó,€p.€262;€including€other€such€atrocities€is€Ball,€òòSlavery€inÐ xÈ Ðthe€United€Statesóó,€pp.€vi„viii;€Alan€D.€Watson,€"Impulse€TowardÐ @ ÐIndependence:€€Resistance€and€Rebellion€among€North€CarolinaÐ X ÐSlaves,€1750„1775,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€63€(Fall€1978):327.€Ð Ð  ÐAlso€note€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€304. 4Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú401Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€41€(Master€Jim),€211Ð ° Ð(Union);€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€259;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€41„42. ÿÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú402Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€40;€òòóóBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.Ð ° Ð55. gÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú403Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€67€(arson),€86€(Cato),€132Ð ° Ð(Grayson);€Gutman€uses€this€lynching€statistic€this€way.€€òòSlaveryÐ xÈ Ðand€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€p.€19. ÚÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú404Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€148,€174,€202,€211,€239,€359. ãÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú405Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€92,€164,€226;€òòóóDavis,Ð ° ÐòòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€50,€91,€112,€154,€175;€John€Thompson,€òòTheÐ xÈ ÐLife€of€John€Thompsonóóòò,€A€Fugitive€Slaveóó€(Worcester,€MA:€€1856),Ð @ Ðp.€18,€cited€by€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€172. 4Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú406Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€165,€166,€175,€269;€Douglass,Ð ° ÐòòNarrativeóó,€pp.€97„99;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€63„64,€206,€379. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú407Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSelling€recalcitrant€slaves€was€another€punishmentÐ ° Ðslaveholders€inflicted,€perhaps€the€most€effective€one€in€theirÐ xÈ Ðarsenal,€because€it€manipulated€slave€family€ties€for€theÐ @ Ðpurposes€of€imposing€labor€discipline,€a€point€already€coveredÐ X Ðabove€(p.€159).€€As€Genovese€noted:€€"The€masters€understood€theÐ Ð  Ðstrength€of€the€marital€and€family€ties€among€their€slaves€wellÐ ˜è Ðenough€to€see€in€them€a€powerful€means€of€social€control....€Ð ` ° ÐNo€threat€carried€such€force€as€a€threat€to€sell€the€children,Ð ( x Ðexcept€the€threat€to€separate€husband€and€wife....€€MastersÐ ð @ Ðand€overseers€...€shaped€disciplinary€procedures€to€take€fullÐ ¸   Ðaccount€of€family€relationships."€€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€452. kÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú408Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€130,€135,€163,€165;€Botkin,Ð ° ÐòòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€152;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€220;€Stampp,Ð xÈ ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€101. uÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú409Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:146„47.€€BarrowÐ ° Ðknew€of€one€incident€where€a€driver€was€killed€for€trying€to€whipÐ xÈ Ða€slave.€€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€156.€€ ÔÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú410Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:147,€231.€ wÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú411Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBarrow€appealed€to€his€slaves'€self„interest€through€hisÐ ° Ð"Rules€of€Highland€Plantation."€€Commenting€on€what€might€happenÐ xÈ Ðif€they€were€scattered€about€due€to€being€allowed€to€go€whereverÐ @ Ðthey€wished€after€work€was€done:€€"Who€can€tell€the€moment€When€aÐ X Ðplantation€might€be€threatened€with€destruction€from€Fire„„couldÐ Ð  Ðthe€flames€be€arrested€if€the€negroes€are€scattered€throughoutÐ ˜è Ðthe€neighborhood,€seeking€their€amusement.€€Are€these€not€dutiesÐ ` ° Ðof€great€importance,€and€in€which€evry€negro€himself€is€deeplyÐ ( x Ðinterested€.€.€.€€Wherever€their€wives€live,€there€they€considerÐ ð @ Ðtheir€homes,€consequently€they€are€indifferent€to€the€interest€ofÐ ¸   Ðthe€plantation€to€which€they€actually€belong."€€When€consideringÐ € Ð  Ðsuch€chronic€runaways€as€G.€Jerry€and€Dennis,€or€such€defiantÐ H ˜  Ðslave€women€as€Patience€and€Big€Lucy,€this€appeal€to€identifyÐ `  Ðwith€their€master's€interests€apparently€did€not€penetrate€theÐ Ø(  Ðquarters€very€deeply.€€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€406,€408.òòóó ÑÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú412Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:147„53. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú413Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€ed.,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€124,€133,€198,€215;Ð ° ÐKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€210,€274,€335;€May,€"John€A.€Quitman€and€HisÐ xÈ ÐSlaves,"€p.€569;€Wallace€Brown,€"Negroes€and€the€AmericanÐ @ ÐRevolution,"€òòHistory€Todayóó,€14€(Aug.€1964):557„58;€Clarence€L.Ð X ÐMohr,€"Bibliographical€Essay€€Southern€Blacks€in€the€Civil€War:€Ð Ð  ÐA€century€of€Historiography,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€59€(AprilÐ ˜è Ð1974):183„88,€193„95;€Frank€A.€Cassell,€"Slaves€of€the€ChesapeakeÐ ` ° ÐBay€Area€and€the€War€of€1812,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€57€(AprilÐ ( x Ð1972):144„55;€William€F.€Messner,€"Black€Violence€and€WhiteÐ ð @ ÐResponse:€€Louisiana,€1862,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó,€41Ð ¸   Ð(Feb.€1975):19„36;€Jeffrey€R.€Young,€"Ideology€and€Death€on€aÐ € Ð  ÐSavannah€River€Rice€Plantation,€1833„1867:€€Paternalism€amidst€'aÐ H ˜  ÐGood€Supply€of€Disease€and€Pain,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€59Ð `  Ð(Nov.€1993):702„3;€Sylvia€R.€Frey,€"The€British€and€the€Black:€€AÐ Ø(  ÐNew€Perspective,"€òòHistorianóó€38€(Feb.€1976):226„38;€John€Cimprich,Ð  ð  Ð"Slave€Behavior€during€the€Federal€Occupation€of€Tennessee,€1862„Ð h¸  Ð1865,"€òòHistorianóó€44€(May€1982):335„46;€Franklin,€òòFrom€Slavery€toÐ 0€  ÐFreedomóó,€pp.€87,€92,€119,€216„18.€€Genovese,€due€to€hisÐ øH  Ðoverarching€model€of€paternalism€as€the€hegemonic€ideology€of€theÐ À Ðmaster€class€being€òòreallyóó€accepted€in€a€modified€form€by€theÐ ˆØ Ðslaves€to€suit€their€own€purposes,€underestimates€how€disruptiveÐ P  Ðwar€was€in€maintaining€labor€discipline.€€Resistance€to€slaveryÐ h Ðneed€not€have€been€manifested€by€violent€revolts,€but€by€massesÐ à0 Ðof€slaves€running€away,€a€lower€risk€strategy€which€still€oftenÐ ¨ø Ðobtained€the€desired€goal.€€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€143„45,€148„Ð pÀ Ð49.  Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú414Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓActually,€we€know€the€slaves'€"hidden€transcript"€betterÐ ° Ðthan€the€agricultural€workers',€because€there€are€far€more€slaveÐ xÈ Ðnarratives€and€autobiographies€than€diaries€and€autobiographiesÐ @ Ðby€farmworkers. RÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú415Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€although€the€Union€army€evidently€was€stillÐ ° Ðfar€away,€the€war's€disorganizing€effects€questioned€theÐ xÈ Ðslaveholder€regime's€legitimacy,€making€the€slaves€more€restiveÐ @ Ðand€free€to€speak,€still€existed€in€this€case.€€After€his€grownÐ X Ðson€had€paraded€around€in€a€Confederate€officer's€uniform,€oneÐ Ð  ÐNorth€Carolinian€master€shot€and€killed€a€slave€for€defiantlyÐ ˜è Ðsaying,€after€mumbling€it€first:€€"I€say,€'Look€at€that€goddamÐ ` ° Ðsoldier.€€He€fighting€to€keep€us€niggers€from€being€free."€Ð ( x ÐBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€194„95. ñÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú416Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAs€quoted€in€Gillis,€òòDevelopment€of€European€Societyóó,€p.Ð ° Ð41. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú417Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€98.€€Cf.€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€297,€309. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú418Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:356;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,Ð ° ÐRollóó,€pp.€285„324.€€See€also€Gutman€and€Sutch€and€David€and€TeminÐ xÈ Ðin€David,€òòReckoningóó,€pp.€55„57,€69„74,€89„93,€204„7;€Gutman,Ð @ ÐòòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€pp.€8,€14„18,€25„31,€39„42,€85,Ð X Ð165,€171„73. ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú419Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€6,€143„44. MÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú420Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓScott,€òòDomination€and€the€Arts€of€Resistanceóó,€pp.€xii,€11,Ð ° Ð17„18,€24,€66,€70„71,€87,€93„95,€105„6;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð48. [Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú421Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAs€quoted€in€Vincent€Harding,€"Religion€and€ResistanceÐ ° Ðamong€Antebellum€Negroes,€1800„1860,"€in€August€Meier€and€ElliottÐ xÈ ÐRudwick,€eds.,€òòThe€Making€of€Black€Americaóó,€vol.€1:€òòThe€OriginsÐ @ Ðof€Black€Americansóó;€2€vols.€Studies€in€American€Negro€Life€(NewÐ X ÐYork:€€Atheneum,€1969),€pp.€182,€185,€187„88;€Botkin,€òòLay€MyÐ Ð  ÐBurden€Downóó,€p.€26.€ Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú422Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€91,€119,€292„93,€295,Ð ° Ð306,€308,€335,€342„61€(sharing€intimacies). ÇÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú423Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:346,€2:117. LÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú424Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted€noted€that€the€South's€dominant€crop€was€grown€onÐ ° Ð5,000,000€acres€out€of€over€500,000,000€acres,€leaving€much€ofÐ xÈ Ðthe€rest€to€wilderness.€€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:24.€€See€alsoÐ @ ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€43„44,€for€how€the€frontierÐ X Ðmentality€affected€the€South's€legal€system€by€encouraging€extra„Ð Ð  Ðlegal€violence. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú425Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBoney,€"Thomas€Stevens,"òòóó€232„33;€Carl€N.€Degler,€"TheÐ ° ÐFoundations€of€Southern€Distinctiveness,"€òòSouthern€Reviewóó€13Ð xÈ Ð(spring€1977):230;€May,€"John€A.€Quitman€and€His€Slaves,"€p.€564.€Ð @ ÐBoth€Degler€and€May€cite€the€work€of€Morton€Rothstein,€and€MayÐ X Ðcites€William€Scarborough,€to€support€their€views.€ % Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú426Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDegler,€"Foundations€of€Southern€Distinctiveness,"€p.€233.€Ð ° ÐSee€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€vol.€1,€pp.€67„73.€Ð xÈ ÐFor€a€reply,€note€David€and€Temin€in€David,€òòReckoning€withÐ @ ÐSlaveryóó,€pp.€39„43.€€Their€argument€does€has€force,€because€(in€aÐ X Ðperfectly€efficient€market)€the€relatively€few€marginalÐ Ð  Ðpurchasers€of€slaves€who€were€purely€motivated€by€profit„makingÐ ˜è Ðconsiderations€would€be€enough€to€bring€the€rate€of€return€toÐ ` ° Ðequilibrium€with€other€profit„making€activities€in€commerce€orÐ ( x Ðindustry.€€However,€how€much€could€the€"tail"€of€a€few€profit„Ð ð @ Ðmotivated€planters€wag€the€theoretical€"dog"€of€purely€non„Ð ¸   Ðeconomically€motivated€slaveholders€in€reality,€especially€sinceÐ € Ð  Ðthe€market€for€slaves€(in€particular)€was€not€exactly€fullyÐ H ˜  Ðefficient?€€Their€point€loses€force€because€the€mere€existence€ofÐ `  Ðprofits€presupposes€someone€desires€them,€just€as€the€existenceÐ Ø(  Ðof€wages€presupposes€laborers'€self„interest€in€earning€them.€Ð  ð  ÐFurthermore,€even€in€their€example€of€the€budget„constrainedÐ h¸  Ð"Cavalier€fop"€who€has€no€profit„making€motive€concerning€hisÐ 0€  Ðslaves,€òòself„interest€is€still€presentóó,€even€if€more€weakly,Ð øH  Ðbecause€within€his€limited€resources€"òòon€averageóó€he€would€holdÐ À Ðmore€slaves€were€slaves€cheap€(vis„a„vis€others€things)€than€heÐ ˆØ Ðwould€were€slaves€relatively€dear"€(p.€41).€€They€ignore€how€theÐ P  Ðfurther€off€this€market€would€go€from€the€general€rate€of€returnÐ h Ðin€the€economy€as€a€whole,€proportionately€increasing€amounts€ofÐ à0 Ðcapital€would€"bleed"€from€the€slave„owning€sector.€€Profit„Ð ¨ø Ðseeking€entrepreneurs€will€shift€capital€from€one€sector€toÐ pÀ Ðanother€as€the€rates€of€return€between€different€sectors€growÐ 8ˆ Ðincreasingly€wider. óÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú427Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGallay,€"Origins€of€Slaveholders'€Paternalism,"€p.€371;Ð ° ÐStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€30„31.€€Gallay€maintains€thisÐ xÈ Ðruling€elite€owned€over€half€of€the€slaves.€€Stampp€calculatesÐ @ Ðthat€only€one„fourth€of€all€the€slaves€belonged€to€those€whoÐ X Ðowned€less€than€ten,€that€somewhat€more€than€half€lived€in€unitsÐ Ð  Ðof€twenty,€and€one„fourth€lived€in€units€of€over€fifty.€€If€weÐ ˜è Ðaccept€Boney's€definition€of€a€"planter,"€which€evidently€tiltsÐ ` ° Ðtowards€those€who€really€could€delegate€the€management€of€theirÐ ( x Ðplantations€to€others€so€they€could€pursue€women,€wild€game,€andÐ ð @ Ðcard€playing,€then€a€strong€majority€of€slaves€were€òònotóó€owned€byÐ ¸   Ðsuch€planters. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú428Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:73;€Stampp,Ð ° ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€163„64. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú429Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€as€an€illustration€of€this€ethos,€we€find€inÐ ° Ðthe€New€Testament€(Hebrews€12:€6„7):€€"For€those€whom€the€LordÐ xÈ Ðloves€He€disciplines,€and€He€scourges€every€son€whom€He€receives.€Ð @ ÐIt€is€for€discipline€that€you€endure;€God€deals€with€you€as€withÐ X Ðsons;€for€what€son€is€there€whom€his€father€does€not€discipline?" ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú430Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAnderson,€"Aunt€Jemima€in€Dialectics,"€pp.€112„13. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú431Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDegler,€"Foundations€of€Southern€Distinctiveness,"€231;Ð ° ÐBoney,€"Thomas€Stevens,€Antebellum€Georgian,"€233;€Olmsted,Ð xÈ ÐòòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:142;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€325. ÑÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú432Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€326.€€Genovese€implicitlyÐ ° Ðrebuts€this€argument.€€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€10.€€He€maintainsÐ xÈ Ðthat€slaveholders€often€knew€all€their€slaves€by€name,€as€well€asÐ @ Ðtheir€individual€personalities.€€However,€this€is€not€enough€forÐ X Ðclose€emotional€bonds€to€form.€€Many€high€school€teachers,€facingÐ Ð  Ð120„150€different€students€in€the€course€of€a€day,€may€soon€knowÐ ˜è Ðall€their€individual€names€and€many€individuals'€personal€quirksÐ ` ° Ðand€talents.€€Nevertheless,€the€serious€emotional€bonds€that€comeÐ ( x Ðfrom€the€intimacy€of€sharing€what€is€on€each€other's€minds€areÐ ð @ Ðlikely€limited€to€a€relative€few€out€of€this€group. ŽÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú433Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDegler€noted€that€Fitzhugh's€brand€of€true€conservatism,Ð ° Ðwho€repudiated€the€liberal€tradition€of€Adam€Smith€and€JohnÐ xÈ ÐLocke,€constituted€only€a€small€minority€viewpoint€among€whites.€Ð @ ÐThese€views€could€not€be€sold€to€the€poor€white€voters€whoÐ X Ðpersonified€"Jacksonian€Democracy"€in€the€South.€€While€Calhoun,Ð Ð  Ða€much€more€influential€figure€than€Fitzhugh,€repudiated€naturalÐ ˜è Ðrights€and€defended€slavery,€he€still€remained€in€the€liberalÐ ` ° Ðtradition€by€comparison.€€He€did€not€look€at€political€and€socialÐ ( x Ðinstitutions€as€organic€wholes€as€Burke€did,€but€somethingÐ ð @ Ðchangeable€based€upon€reason,€as€illustrated€by€his€proposal€forÐ ¸   Ða€concurrent€majority€in€approving€legislation.€€Degler€suggestsÐ € Ð  Ðthat€white€Southerners,€by€emphasizing€the€racial€component€ofÐ H ˜  æ ÐAmerican€slavery€more€than€it€was€elsewhere,€allowed€them€to€readÐ ° Ðthe€blacks€out€of€society€and€political€life€as€being€innatelyÐ xÈ Ðinferior.€€This€heavy€dose€of€racism€allowed€them€to€have€anÐ @ Ðindividualistic,€liberal€capitalism€with€a€republican€governmentÐ X Ðbased€upon€universal€white€manhood€suffrage€among€themselvesÐ Ð  Ðwhile€keeping€blacks€in€chains.€€Degler,€"Foundations€of€SouthernÐ ˜è ÐDistinctiveness,"€234„39. dÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú434Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€92;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€115;€Botkin,Ð ° ÐòòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€186;€Ball,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,Ð xÈ æ Ðpp.€48„49. ØÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú435Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€76,€102„3,€233,€249.€€SeeÐ ° Ðalso€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€319;€Clarence€L.€Mohr,Ð xÈ Ð"Before€Sherman:€€Georgia€Blacks€and€the€Union€War€Effort,€1861„Ð @ Ð1864,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€45€(Aug.€1979):332. œÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú436Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSome€of€the€other€effects€of€using€ignorance€to€controlÐ ° Ðthe€slaves€was€dealt€with€in€the€section€on€education€(pp.€107„9)Ð xÈ Ðand€the€quality€of€life€(p.€97)€above,€so€they€need€not€beÐ @ Ðrepeated€here.€€ ÛÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú437Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óas€quoted€in€Gutman,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€p.€101. ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú438Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€298. ½Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú439Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€91„92. ½Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú440Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€110. \Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú441Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJoyce€E.€Chaplin,€"Slavery€and€the€Principle€of€Humanity:€Ð ° ÐA€Modern€Idea€in€the€Early€Lower€South,"€òòJournal€of€SocialÐ xÈ ÐHistoryóó,€winter€1990,€p.€309. ˆÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú442Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€25,€258.€€Note€also€pp.€40,€177,€279„Ð ° Ð80;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€101,€161;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:39,Ð xÈ Ð103,€181;€May,€"John€Quitman€and€His€Slaves,"€pp.€556„57. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú443Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€123;€Chaplin,€"Slavery€andÐ ° Ðthe€Principle€of€Humanity,"€309;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€157;Ð xÈ ÐBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€p.€292.€€See€also€Orser,Ð @ Ð"Archaeological€Analysis€of€Plantation€Society,"€742. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú444Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€examples€of€this€practice,€see€Botkin,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ ° ÐDownóó,€p.€158;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€47;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.Ð xÈ æ Ð253;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€187,€203,€210;€Olmsted,Ð ° ÐòòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:238,€251;€€2:180,€195„96,€238„39;€AlexÐ xÈ ÐLichtenstein,€"'That€Disposition€to€Theft,€With€Which€They€HaveÐ @ ÐBeen€Branded,':€€Moral€Economy,€Slave€Management,€and€the€Law,"Ð X ÐòòJournal€of€Social€Historyóó€21€(spring€1988):424„26;€Morgan,Ð Ð  Ð"Ownership€of€Property€by€Slaves,"€pp.€399„420;€Stampp,€òòPeculiarÐ ˜è ÐInstitutionóó,€pp.€164„66. ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú445Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€280. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú446Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:148;€Davis,Ð ° ÐòòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€139,€218,€279;€Sides,€"Slave€Weddings€andÐ xÈ ÐReligion,"€òòóó83.€€For€more€on€this€issue,€see€Gutman,€òòSlavery€andÐ @ æ Ðthe€Numbers€Gameóó,€pp.€44„47. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú447Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:149,€150,€€2:117„Ð ° Ð118,€262;€€Gutman€and€Sutch€in€David,€òòReckoning€with€Slaveryóó,€pp.Ð xÈ Ð74„86.€€They€also€explain€here€how€Fogel€and€Engerman's€inflatedÐ @ Ðfigures€on€the€percentage€of€black€drivers€and€overseersÐ X Ð(supervisors€of€drivers)€were€inaccurate. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú448Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€258„60,€316;€Orser,Ð ° Ð"Archaeological€Analysis€of€Plantation€Society,"€pp.€740„41.€€ForÐ xÈ Ðthe€general€unpopularity€of€the€drivers€with€other€slaves,€noteÐ @ ÐBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€85,€90,€91,€94,€120,€121;Ð X ÐArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€217„18.€€The€ex„slavesÐ Ð  Ðinterviewed€in€the€FWP€narratives€may€have€emphasized€theÐ ˜è Ðbrutality€of€the€drivers€due€to€fearing€saying€negative€thingsÐ ` ° æ Ðabout€their€past€white€master€and/or€overseer€to€whiteÐ ° Ðinterviewers€that€gathered€their€reminiscences.€€William€L.€VanÐ xÈ ÐDeburg,€"Slave€Drivers€and€Slave€Narratives:€€A€New€Look€at€theÐ @ Ð'Dehumanized€Elite,'"€òòHistorianóó€39€(Aug.€1977):728„30.€€However,Ð X Ðin€at€least€two€of€the€narratives€found€in€Botkin€cited€above,Ð Ð  Ðthe€slaves€were€willing€to€say€negative€things€about€theirÐ ˜è Ðmasters€as€well,€thus€blunting€Van€Deburg's€point.  Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú449Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€153;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€41.€Ð ° ÐHowever,€if€the€slave€was€a€valuable€artisan,€punishing€him€thisÐ xÈ Ðway€normally€cost€too€much.€€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.Ð @ Ð184. §Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú450Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€272,€359,€419,€421;€David€andÐ ° ÐTemin€in€David,€òòóóòòReckoningóó,€pp.€45„46;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,Ð xÈ ÐRollóó,€pp.€370„71,€393.€€The€nearest€any€master€might€have€come€toÐ @ ÐFogel€and€Engerman's€model€of€long„run€incentives€was€the€largeÐ X Ðplantation€of€Zephaniah€Kingsley€in€Florida.€€It€featured€aÐ Ð  Ðthree„tiered€hierarchy:€€freedmen,€the€drivers€who€were€next€inÐ ˜è Ðline€to€be€freed,€and€the€mass€of€slaves,€which€included€a€flowÐ ` ° Ðof€continual€newcomers€from€Africa.€€See€J.P.€White,€"ChristmasÐ ( x Ðat€the€Plantation,"€òòNorth€American€Reviewóó€278€(Nov./Dec.€1993):5„Ð ð @ Ð6. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú451Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:189. $Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú452Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGathering€"horror€stories"€of€harsh€overseers€is€easy,€andÐ ° Ðlittle€exists€to€rebut€the€overall€impression€they€give.€€UnlikeÐ xÈ Ðthe€case€concerning€good€versus€bad€masters,€where€even€among€theÐ @ Ðslaves€a€more€divided€opinion€exists,€testimony€about€overseersÐ X Ðis€nearly€always€negative.€€See€Botkin,€ed.,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,Ð Ð  Ðpp.€36,€104,€106;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€180,€223„24;€Davis,Ð ˜è ÐòòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€154;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€112,Ð ` ° Ð145„47;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€pp.€38„40;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€29,Ð ( x Ð183;€Northrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€pp.€170„71;€Franklin,€òòFromÐ ð @ ÐSlavery€to€Freedomóó,€p.€139.€€One€striking€exception€to€thisÐ ¸   Ðgenerally€dismal€picture€was€the€overseer€from€Pennsylvania€whoÐ € Ð  Ðprotected€Northrup€from€a€master€about€to€hang€him€with€the€aidÐ H ˜  Ðof€two€other€overseers€for€whipping€him.€€See€Northrup,€òòTwelveÐ `  ÐYears€a€Slaveóó,€pp.€77,€83„85. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú453Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:189. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú454Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€99,€154.€€He€also€complainsÐ ° Ðabout€overseers€on€pp.€89,€90,€232. åÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú455Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓYoung,€"Ideology€and€Death,"€697;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€p.€213;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€321„23;€Stampp,Ð xÈ ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€54„56;€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€theÐ @ ÐCrossóó,€1:236„37;€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€79,€347. SÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú456Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:247„48;€Cf.€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð ° ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€p.€621;€Morgan,€"Ownership€of€Property€by€Slaves,"Ð xÈ Ðpp.€400„401.€€Notice€how€organizing€work€by€task€appealed€to€theÐ @ Ðslaves'€sense€of€time€and€work€(task„orientation),€while€tryingÐ X Ðto€get€them€to€work€methodically€by€the€clock€was€a€failureÐ Ð  Ð(time„orientation). ¹Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú457Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€135. ÈÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú458Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:136,€247„48. QÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú459Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€136;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€p.€240;€Blake€Allmendinger,€"Acting€and€Slavery:€Ð xÈ ÐRepresentations€of€Work€in€the€Writings€of€Fanny€Kemble,"Ð @ ÐòòMississippi€Quarterlyóó€41€(fall€1988):512;€Starobin,€"DiscipliningÐ X ÐIndustrial€Slaves,"òòóó€112;€Blassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€126„Ð Ð   Ð27. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú460Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€p.€213;€Davis,€òòPlantationÐ ° ÐLifeóó,€p.€421. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú461Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòDebow's€Reviewóó€18€(March€1855):339,€quoted€by€Kolchin,Ð ° ÐòòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€79. ÉÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú462Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€168„69;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,Ð ° Ðp.€123;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€249„50.€€For€more€on€the€patrolÐ xÈ Ðsystem,€see€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€617„19;€Stampp,Ð @ ÐòòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€214„15. !Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú463Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€259;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€407„Ð ° Ð08;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€92. $Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú464Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€150„51.€€Freedman€TonyÐ ° ÐWashington€tells€of€a€similar€practice,€ibid.,€p.€32. *Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú465Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€86€(Cato),€113Ð ° Ð(Robinson)€146€(Europe);€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€25. ´Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú466Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€28,€33„34;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€70Ð ° Ð(Nichols),€249€(Younger);€Mohr,€"Slavery€in€Oglethorpe€County,"òòóóÐ xÈ Ð8;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€41;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð @ Ð1:356;€ ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú467Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€50,€76,€148. ]Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú468Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€pp.€57„58;€Kemble,Ð ° ÐòòJournalóó,€pp.€102„3,€135,€170;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.Ð xÈ Ð31,€32,€81;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€82„83.€€Also€noteÐ @ Ðthe€implications€of€Jacobs€saying€she€could€look€for€noÐ X Ðprotection€from€her€young€mistress€against€Mr.€Flint€in€Brent,Ð Ð  ÐòòIncidentsóó,€p.€18. ÌÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú469Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€70„71,€194. ¯Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú470Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBall,€òòSlavery€in€the€United€Statesóó,€p.€58;€Botkin,€òòLay€MyÐ ° ÐBurden€Downóó,€p.€119;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€69.€€However,€later,€afterÐ xÈ Ðhe€had€been€chained€to€a€tree,€he€punished€by€making€him€fall€onÐ @ Ðhis€back. ÑÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú471Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCf.€to€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€515„19. ÍÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú472Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGutman,€òòSlavery€and€the€Numbers€Gameóó,€p.€26. ¸Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú473Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAnderson,€"Aunt€Jemima€in€Dialectics,"€111;€As€summarizedÐ ° Ðin€Richard€S.€Sterne€and€Jean€Loftin€Rothseiden,€"Master„SlaveÐ xÈ ÐClashes€as€Forerunners€of€Patterns€in€Modern€American€UrbanÐ @ ÐEruptions,"€òòPhylonóó€30€(fall€1969):254. „Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú474Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€133;€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ ° ÐCommunityóó,€pp.€219„20;€Anderson,€"Aunt€Jemima€in€Dialectics,"Ð xÈ Ð111„12;€Sterne€and€Rothseiden,€"Master„Slave€Clashes,"€250„60. „Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú475Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€212,€287€(quote),Ð ° Ð253„58€(policies€of€repression),€308„9€(punishment€statistics);Ð xÈ Ð"A€very€English€rising,"€òòTimes€Literary€Supplementóó,€Sept.€11,Ð @ Ð1969,€as€cited€in€Rule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€360;€Hudson,Ð X ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€233„34;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ Ð  ÐLaboureróó,€p.€279€(Cavan),€254,€266€(policies€of€repression). Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú476Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€184;€Rule,€òòLabouringÐ ° ÐClassesóó,€p.€360. ­Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú477Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€66,€102„5;€HammondÐ ° Ðand€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboreróó,€pp.€246„49,€258„59;€€See€also,Ð xÈ Ðalthough€fictionalized€and€opposed€to€the€rioters'€demands,Ð @ ÐòòMachine„Breaking€and€the€Changes€Occasioned€by€It€in€the€VillageÐ X Ðof€Turvey€Down:€€A€Tale€of€the€Timesóó€(Oxford,€England:€€W.Ð Ð  ÐBaxter,€1830),€pp.€26„30,€as€found€in€Carpenter,€òòRising€of€theÐ ˜è ÐAgricultural€Workersóó. dÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú478Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€250„52;€compareÐ ° Ðthe€similar€demands€made€and€granted€in€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,Ð xÈ ÐòòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€105,€117„18. 'Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú479Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓConcerning€the€counties'€rulers€willingness€to€makeÐ ° Ðconcessions,€note€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€16„17. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú480Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€104,€109„10,€118,Ð ° Ð124„25,€130,€152,€158„60,€231„33.€ ¿Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú481Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThe€remarkable€restraint€and€order€of€English€crowdsÐ ° Ðduring€food€riots€also€confirms€this€characterization.€€SeeÐ xÈ ÐThompson,€"The€Moral€Economy€of€the€English€Crowd,"€99,€108„20;Ð @ ÐHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboreróó,€pp.€116„18. ÃÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú482Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:350„51. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú483Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAlexis€de€Tocqueville,€òòThe€Old€Regime€and€the€FrenchÐ ° ÐRevolutionóó,€trans.€Stuart€Gilbert€(1856;€New€York:€€Anchor€Books,Ð xÈ ÐDoubleday,€1955),€pp.€32„72;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ @ ÐLaboureróó,€pp.€12„17;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Laboureróó,€pp.€60„Ð X Ð80,€269;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€164. ùÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú484Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€pp.€216„17.€€The€purpose€of€this€briefÐ ° Ðsummary€on€enclosure€is€not€to€debate€the€overall€merits€ofÐ xÈ Ðenclosure,€such€as€the€trade„off€between€increased€production€andÐ @ Ðhigh€social€costs€like€increased€unemployment,€loss€of€rights€toÐ X æ Ðcommon,€etc. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú485Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓYoung,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€12„13,€16;€Commission€onÐ ° ÐEmployment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.€48,€52,€54;€Anscomb,Ð xÈ Ð"Parliamentary€Enclosure€in€Northamptonshire,"€pp.€415„416;Ð @ ÐHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€93,€97„98;€Rule,€òòVitalÐ X ÐCenturyóó,€pp.€86„87.òòóó ØÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú486Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓYoung,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€155,€158,€169„70;€cf.€p.€81. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú487Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€32;€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ° ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€p.€xlvii }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú488Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJ.€Arbuthnot,€òòAn€Inquiry€into€the€Connection€between€theÐ ° ÐPresent€Price€of€Provisions€and€the€Size€of€Farmsóó€(1773),€asÐ xÈ Ðquoted€in€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€p.€173.€€Cf.€the€clergyman€for€Naseing,Ð @ ÐEssex's€comment€that€enclosure€locally€had€"a€worthless€crewÐ X Ðchanged€to€industrious€labourers."€€Young,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€p.Ð Ð  Ð156;€see€also€pp.€391„92.€€Those€living€near€large€commons€wereÐ ˜è Ðconsidered€"irregular€in€their€habits"€and€"were€often€the€mostÐ ` ° Ðdistressed€and€needy€of€the€surrounding€population."€€CommissionÐ ( x Ðon€the€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€p.€lii. UÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú489Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€35„37;€Hammond€andÐ ° ÐHammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€99„101;€Rule,€òòVital€Centuryóó,€pp.Ð xÈ Ð88„90.€ êÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú490Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€221;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€407;Ð ° ÐHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€76;€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€195„Ð xÈ Ð97.€€Note€that€Yorkshire€was€broken€up€into€three€differentÐ @ Ð"counties"€for€these€comparisons;€Young,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€p.€157. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú491Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAs€quoted€in€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€70,€77;€compare€Hammonds,Ð ° ÐòòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€115„16. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú492Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€34,€182„83;€Snell,Ð ° ÐòòAnnalsóó,€pp.€17„19,€72„73,€78„80,€334„36;€Norma€Landau,€"TheÐ xÈ ÐRegulation€of€Immigration,€Economic€Structures€and€Definitions€ofÐ @ Ðthe€Poor€in€Eighteen„Century€England,"€òòHistorical€Journalóó€33Ð X Ð(Sept.€1990):541„72;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.Ð Ð  Ð108„16.€€There€is€an€ominous€similarity€between€the€pre„1795Ð ˜è Ðcertificate€system€and€the€pass€system€imposed€on€slaves,€theÐ ` ° Ðmain€differences€being€the€latter€was€proportionately€much€lessÐ ( x Ðoften€enforced,€especially€in€urban€areas,€that€it€was€tied€toÐ ð @ Ðgiving€aid€to€the€poor,€not€a€restriction€on€movement€for€theÐ ¸   Ðsake€of€control€alone,€that€a€local€unit€of€government,€not€aÐ € Ð  Ðmaster/employer/owner€granted€it,€and€the€difficulties€imposed€inÐ H ˜  Ðinstantly€spotting€violators€because€of€a€lack€of€racialÐ `  Ðdifferences€between€the€laborers€and€those€who€enforced€it. bÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú493Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArthur€Young,€òòA€Six€Months€Tour€Through€the€North€ofÐ ° ÐEnglandóó€2d€ed.,€4€vols.€(London:€€W.€Trahan,€W.€Nicol,€1771),Ð xÈ Ð2:129;€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.Ð @ Ðxvi,€xvii,€xxv,€xxvi;€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€p.€192,€footnote€14;Ð X ÐRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€79„80;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ Ð  ÐLaboureróó,€p.€108. {Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú494Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€74„76,€84;€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ ° ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€pp.€xii„xiii,€xx,€xxiv;€Committee€onÐ xÈ ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€47 BÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú495Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJ.C.D.€Clark€says€enclosure€"may€even€have€tended€toÐ ° Ðincrease€the€numbers€of€living„in€servants,€for€the€effect€ofÐ xÈ Ðmore€efficient€agriculture€was€to€increase,€not€reduce€the€demandÐ @ Ðfor€labor."€€This€assumes€not€only€that€the€given€enclosure€didÐ X Ðnot€replace€arable€land€with€permanent€pasture,€but€generallyÐ Ð  Ðdiscounts€how€enclosure€increased€unemployment€by€driving€moreÐ ˜è Ðworkers€into€local€labor€markets,€especially€in€winter,€sinceÐ ` ° Ðthey€could€no€longer€eke€out€a€living€off€the€local€commons.€Ð ( x ÐòòEnglish€Society€1688„1832:€€€Ideology,€Social€Structure€andÐ ð @ ÐPolitical€Practice€During€the€Ancien€Regimeóó,€Cambridge€Studies€inÐ ¸   Ðthe€History€and€Theory€of€Politics€(Cambridge:€€CambridgeÐ € Ð  ÐUniversity€Press,€1985),€p.€68. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú496Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€30„31;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€42;Ð ° Ðcf.€p.€147€cited€above€(p.€208). ¿Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú497Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€219„20;€Chadwick's€letter€asÐ ° Ðreproduced€in€Committee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ xÈ Ðreport,€p.€46;€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€44„46;Ð @ ÐSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€69„97,€216.€ fÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú498Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€221;€Committee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,Ð ° ÐòòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€pp.€53„54,€second€report,€òòóóp.€18;€Agar,Ð xÈ ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€52,€64,€73;€see€also€p.€76;Ð @ ÐSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€385;€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€210„18,€348„52;Ð X ÐRule,€òòVital€Centuryóó,€pp.€23„24;€Hammonds,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.Ð Ð  Ð167. ûÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú499Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRushton,€"The€Poor€Law€in€North„East€England,"òòóó€147;Ð ° ÐHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€76;€Anonymous,€òòThe€Life€andÐ xÈ ÐHistory€of€Swingóó;€reprint€ed.,€Carpenter,€òòRising€of€theÐ @ ÐAgricultural€Labourersóó,€pp.€18„19,€24;€Hammonds,€òòVillageÐ X ÐLaboureróó,€p.€241;€Peter€Dunkley,€"'The€'Hungry€Forties'€and€theÐ Ð  ÐNew€Poor€Law:€€A€Case€Study,"€òòHistorical€Journalóó€17€(JuneÐ ˜è Ð1974):337„338;€Report€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ ` ° Ðreport,€p.€71. WÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú500Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€a€contemporary€analysis€of€this€phenomenon,€see€GeorgeÐ ° ÐGilder,€òòWealth€and€Povertyóó€(New€York:€€Basic€Books,€1981),€pp.Ð xÈ Ð143„44,€154,€156„61. ¼Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú501Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óas€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€74.€€Even€whenÐ ° Ðsomething€was€accomplished,€a€lack€of€incentive€for€òòfurtheróóÐ xÈ Ðemployment€could€exist€when€one€ends€up€overwhelmed€with€aÐ @ Ðsurplus€inventory€of€gravel.€€One€area€in€Yorkshire€employed€soÐ X Ðmany€at€stone„breaking€that€they€piled€up€enough€stones€to€lastÐ Ð   Ðover€eight€to€ten€years€after€only€three€or€four€months.€Ð ° ÐCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€29. ‡Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú502Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓA.F.€Cirket,€"The€1830€Riots€in€Bedfordshire„„BackgroundÐ ° Ðand€Events,"€òòBedfordshire€Historical€Record€Societyóó€57Ð xÈ Ð(1978):107;€Committee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,Ð @ Ðp.€66;€Committee€on€Poor€Law€Amendment€Act,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ X Ðreport,€òòóóp.€72;€cf.€testimony€by€farmer€Thomas€William€Overman€ofÐ Ð  ÐBedfordshire€in€1838,€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€92. cÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú503Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓQuoted€by€Dunkley,€"The€'Hungry€Forties,'"òòóó€340;€letter€toÐ ° ÐE.€Chadwick,€1836,€as€found€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð131;€see€also€pp.€78„79. °Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú504Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRushton,€"The€Poor€Law,"€pp.€147„148.€€On€the€earlyÐ ° Ðadvocacy€and€application€of€this€test,€see€David€Eastwood,Ð xÈ Ð"Debate:€€The€Making€of€the€New€Poor€Law€Redivivus,"€òòPast€&Ð @ æ ÐPresentóó,€no.€127€(May€1990),€p.€191. ùÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú505Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPeter€Mandler,€"Making€of€the€New€Poor€Law€Redivivus,"€òòóóp.Ð ° Ð192,€footnote€27;€For€more€on€the€workhouse/prison€analogy,€seeÐ xÈ ÐJames€Turner's€exchanges€with€James€Fielden,€M.P.,€in€Agar,Ð @ ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€92„94.€€Admittedly,€while€theÐ X Ðauthors€of€the€1834€Poor€Law€Report€wanted€the€inmates€of€theÐ Ð  Ðworkhouses€continually€confined,€local€exceptions€existed,€suchÐ ˜è Ðas€in€Peterborough€union,€Northampton.€€Its€guardians€voted€toÐ ` ° Ðallow€the€infirm€and€aged€to€walk€outside€for€four€hours€daily€inÐ ( x Ðcertain€areas.€€Anthony€Brundage,€"The€English€Poor€Law€of€1834Ð ð @ Ðand€the€Cohesion€of€Agricultural€Society,"€òòAgricultural€HistoryóóÐ ¸   Ð48€(July€1974):416. »Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú506Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€353„54;€Committee€on€New€PoorÐ ° ÐLaw,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€70.€€Interestingly,€he€noted€ifÐ xÈ Ðòòelderlyóó€couples€"wished€to€live€together,€the€Commissioners€have,Ð @ Ðin€some€cases€relaxed€the€rule."€€The€Northampton€guardians€inÐ X Ð1837€received€such€permission,€for€they€had€partitioned€off€aÐ Ð  Ðroom€for€elderly€couples€who€wished€to€sleep€together.€€Brundage,Ð ˜è æ Ð"English€Poor€Law,"€416. ZÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú507Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€35;€cf.€the€debate€over€taking€inÐ ° Ðpart€of€a€family€in€Committee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€firstÐ xÈ Ðreport,€pp.€16,€32. pÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú508Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€more€on€this€general€theme,€see€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð133„35.€€Engels€mentions€that€pauperized€families€were€dividedÐ xÈ Ðwithin€a€workhouse.€€òòConditionóó,€pp.€324„25. ÙÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú509Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Crabbe's€poem€in€Hammonds,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€144. vÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú510Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville's€fictitious€dialog,€based€on€solid€facts,€saidÐ ° Ðthe€workhouse€made€"the€diet€as€low€as€will€possibly€sustainÐ xÈ Ðlife"€in€order€to€deter€applicants.€€òòWhistleróó,€p.€47. ùÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú511Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€more€on€the€deliberately€bad€conditions€in€workhousesÐ ° Ðand€their€deterrent€purposes,€see€Engels,€òòConditionóó,€pp.€324,Ð xÈ Ð326„29;€€Dunkley,€"The€'Hungry€Forties,'"€335„37;€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,Ð @ Ðpp.€127,€132„37;€Eastwood,€"Making€of€the€New€Poor€LawÐ X ÐRedivivus,"€190„92 0Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú512Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMorgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€p.€192,€n.€10;€Overman€as€in€Agar,Ð ° ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€75;€see€also€Geryòòóó€on€p.€52. ³Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú513Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArthur€Young,€òòAn€Inquiry€into€the€Propriety€of€ApplyingÐ ° ÐWastes€to€the€Better€Maintenance€and€Support€of€the€Pooróó€(BuryÐ xÈ ÐSt.€Edmunds,€1801),€cited€by€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€p.€214,€footnote€144;Ð @ ÐHugh€Wade€Gery,€testifying€before€Select€Committee€of€the€HouseÐ X Ðof€Lords€on€the€Poor€Laws,€òòBPPóó,€1818,€vol.€V€as€in€Agar,Ð Ð  ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€50;€see€also€Cirket,€"1830€Riots€inÐ ˜è ÐBedfordshire,"€75„76. ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú514Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòóóBatchelor€for€Lidlington,€Commission€on€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,Ð ° Ð1834€as€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€74;€Committee€onÐ xÈ ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€56;€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,Ð @ ÐòòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€51. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú515Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1838,€first€report,€pp.€7,Ð ° Ð38,€46;€Brundage,€"English€Poor€Law,"€412. (Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú516Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€128„31.€€These€are€money€wages€only,Ð ° Ðbut€Snell€maintains€prices€were€similar€for€1833€and€1837,€andÐ xÈ Ðthat€for€1850€prices€were€only€"marginally€lower;"€Committee€onÐ @ ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€24;€Caird,€òòEnglishÐ X ÐAgricultureóó,€p.€85;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€128. òÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú517Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„68,€p.Ð ° Ðxl. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú518Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€v;€see€also€pp.€iv,Ð ° Ð6,€22,€40,€49,€84,€110,€137;€Commission€on€Employment€inÐ xÈ ÐAgriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„1868,€pp.€xxxi,€xxiv. ZÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú519Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€12,€24,€40,€84;Ð ° ÐAgar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€7,€22;€Young,€òòSix€MonthsÐ xÈ ÐTouróó,€2:261„64.€ rÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú520Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓYoung,€òòGeneral€Reportóó,€pp.€14„15,€164„66;€Committee€onÐ ° ÐAllotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€11,€15,€17,€22;€see€also€pp.€v,€12,Ð xÈ Ð32,€113;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€342„43. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú521Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCirket,€"1830€Riots€in€Bedfordshire,"€109„10;€Hammonds,Ð ° ÐòòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€156„57;€Committee€on€Allotments,€1843,€òòBPPóó,Ð xÈ Ðp.€iii.€€For€an€example€of€how€at„will€tenancies€or€insecureÐ @ Ðtenure€could€intimidate€farmers€when€public€voting€was€done,€seeÐ X ÐArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€59„60;€cf.€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€129.€Ð Ð  ÐAs€for€allotments€still€not€being€especially€extensive€even€mid„Ð ˜è Ðcentury,€see€Commission€on€Employment€in€Agriculture,€òòBPPóó,€1867„Ð ` ° Ð68,€first€report,€p.€xxxii. \Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú522Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€2,€16,€39,€47,Ð ° Ð106,€108;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€33„34;€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€139„40,€148.€ ÂÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú523Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€344„45,€360.€€Actually€theÐ ° Ðadministrative€costs€and€the€loss€of€rent€may€not€have€been€muchÐ xÈ Ðgreater,€other€than€agents€spending€more€time€while€collectingÐ @ Ðfrom€more€people,€because€laborers€with€allotments€reliably€paidÐ X Ðtheir€rent€in€at€least€some€cases.€€In€one€case,€the€landlord€hadÐ Ð  Ðlost€only€one„quarter€of€1€percent€of€rent€charged.€€SeeÐ ˜è ÐCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€17,€112,€119. ‚Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú524Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommission€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€47;€Jeffries,Ð ° ÐòòHodgeóó,€1:152;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€33;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð344;€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€7. ¨Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú525Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ómy€emphasis,€Young,€òòA€Six€Weeks€Tour€Through€the€SouthernÐ ° ÐCounties€of€England€and€Walesóó,€2d€ed.€(London:€€W.€Strahan,€W.Ð xÈ ÐNicoll,€etc.,€1769),€pp.€324„325;€Committee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,Ð @ Ð1843,€p.€47. ¸Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú526Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€"Time,€Work„Discipline,€Industrial€Capitalism,"Ð ° Ð60„61,€90„97.€€Curiously,€when€he€waxes€philosophical€on€theÐ xÈ Ðnature€of€task„orientation€towards€the€end€of€this€article,€heÐ @ Ðlargely€forgets€this€crucial€insight.€€Necessarily,€if€it€is€theÐ X Ðdivision€of€labor€that€creates€time€discipline€through€having€theÐ Ð  Ðmanagers€and€the€managed€in€a€central€workplace--the€essence€ofÐ ˜è Ðthe€factory€system--then€who€owns€the€means€of€production,Ð ` ° Ðwhether€it€be€the€state€or€private€individuals,€becomesÐ ( x Ðirrelevant€to€the€switch€over€from€task„orientation€to€time„Ð ð @ Ðorientation,€as€the€Soviet€experience€in€the€1930s€demonstrates. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú527Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€as€found€inÐ ° ÐAgar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€88. uÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú528Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSuch€policies€backfired€then,€as€they€do€today,€for€theÐ ° Ðbasic€reason€Caird€saw:€€"No€labour€is€more€unprofitable€thanÐ xÈ Ðthat€which€is€underpaid."€€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€73. aÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú529Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€2:60;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€340;€Young,Ð ° ÐòòGeneral€Reportóó,€p.€105;€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€pp.€110„14;€see€alsoÐ xÈ Ðpp.€53,€95,€98,€106„7€for€more€on€piecework's€extensive€useÐ @ Ðduring€harvest;€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,€p.€248;€RoyalÐ X ÐCommission€on€Labour,€1893,€as€found€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€FarmÐ Ð  ÐWorkeróó,€p.€32. ïÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú530Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€"Time,€Work„Discipline,€Industrial€Capitalism,"Ð ° Ð76„79. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú531Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€164;€see€also€pp.€153„54;€HammondÐ ° Ðand€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€14;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€229„30;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:141.€€Since€in€this€work€he€isÐ @ Ðgenerally€sympathetic€to€the€rural€elite,€this€description€gainsÐ X Ðweight. |Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú532Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Laboureróó,€p.€62.€€For€more€onÐ ° Ðthis€general€theme,€see€Thompson,€òòMakingóó,€pp.€107„77,€219,€222;Ð xÈ ÐHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Laboureróó,€pp.€80,€94. XÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú533Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJohn€Styles,€"Crime€in€18th„Century€England,"€òòHistoryÐ ° ÐTodayóó€38€(Mar.€1988):41;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€2:13„17;€Arch,€òòJosephÐ xÈ ÐArchóó,€p.€152. ³Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú534Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€òòóópp.€167„68. XÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú535Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€151„152.€€For€the€ignorance€of€theÐ ° Ðlaw€among€the€Swing€Rioters,€see€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ xÈ ÐLaboureróó,€p.€276. ¿Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú536Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€152„53. UÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú537Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€some€of€these€specific€laws€and€cases,€see€Hudson,Ð ° ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€227„30;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ xÈ ÐLaboureróó,€pp.€272„75. ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú538Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€example,€see€the€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ ° ÐLaboureróó,€pp.€200„202. ©Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú539Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€p.€280. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú540Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMorgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€pp.€124„26. ÔÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú541Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€198„200. ËÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú542Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Laboureróó,€p.€63. ÙÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú543Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€Scottish€bailiffs,€see€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ ° ÐLaboureróó,€pp.€211„12;€For€Arch's€ideas€on€the€relationshipÐ xÈ Ðbetween€the€laborers€and€farmers,€see€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€35„Ð @ Ð37,€128„30,€175„76,€314;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€216„17. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú544Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓòòóóI€believe€that€while€Clark's€thesis€is€perfectlyÐ ° Ðsustainable€for€most€of€the€eighteenth€century,€its€fullÐ xÈ Ðcredibility€is€seriously€undermined€after€c.€1795€by€theÐ @ Ðaftereffects€of€the€French€Revolution€and€the€wars€with€France,Ð X Ðincluding€the€growth€of€artisanal€radicalism.€€ ÇÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú545Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrundage,€"English€Poor€Law,"€406„7,€416„17. àÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú546Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMandler,€"Making€of€the€New€Poor€Law€Redivivus,"€òòóó194„201òòóó. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú547Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEvans,€òòForging€of€the€Modern€Stateóó,€p.€146;€as€cited€inÐ ° ÐRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€360;€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptainÐ xÈ ÐSwingóó,€pp.€17,€52;€see€also€p.€47;€On€the€opposition€of€the€poor,Ð @ Ðsee€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€133„37;€Brundage,€"English€Poor€Law,"òòóó€408„Ð X  Ð9. ýÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú548Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€New€Poor€Law,€òòÔ_ÔBPPÔ_Ôóó,€1837,€p.€48. DÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú549Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓÔ_ÔJeffriesÔ_Ô,€òòÔ_ÔHodgeÔ_Ôóó,€2:61;€Ô_ÔSnellÔ_Ô,€òòAnnalsóó,€p.€260. {Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú550Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€67„69,€101„103,€321„322.€€While€dealingÐ ° Ðwith€an€urban,€industrial€context,€Engels€made€the€same€point.€Ð xÈ ÐòòConditionóó,€p.€138;€Howard€Newby,€"The€Deferential€Dialectic,"Ð @ ÐòòComparative€Studies€in€Society€and€Historyóó€17€(April€1975):155„Ð X Ð57;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€249;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:135;€HobsbawmÐ Ð  Ðand€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€38. }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú551Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€25;€Somerville,Ð ° ÐòòWhistleróó,€pp.€121„22;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€293„94;Ð xÈ ÐEastwood,€"Making€of€the€New€Poor€Law€Redivivus,"€192. VÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú552Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€226„27;Ð ° ÐHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€69;€Newby,€"The€DeferentialÐ xÈ ÐDialectic,"€161„63. ïÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú553Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFrom€1770€to€1851,€Nonconformity€rose€from€having€just€aÐ ° Ðhalf€million€out€of€seven€million€in€England,€to€slightly€overÐ xÈ Ðhalf€of€the€church„going€population€in€1851,€with€over€half€theÐ @ Ðpopulation€not€attending€church€at€all.€Clark,€òòEnglish€Societyóó,Ð X Ðp.€89. /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú554Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJames€Obelkevitch,€òòReligion€and€Rural€Society:€€SouthÐ ° ÐLindsey€1825„1875óó,€as€quoted€in€Clark,€òòEnglish€Societyóó,€p.€68. ûÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú555Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€p.€136.€€Confirming€Snell's€viewpoint,Ð ° Ðalthough€in€an€urban,€artisanal€context,€was€the€leadingÐ xÈ Ðgrievance€of€Chartist€orators„„the€New€Poor€Law.€€Rule,€òòLabouringÐ @ ÐClassesóó,€p.€390;€also€see€Thomson,€òòEngland€in€the€NineteenthÐ X ÐCenturyóó,€p.€71.€ ÏÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú556Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€42,€101„2,€140,€153. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú557Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNewby€notes€that€the€outward€signs€of€deference,€such€asÐ ° Ðbowing,€saluting,€etc.,€are€not€without€meaning,€because€theyÐ xÈ Ðallow€the€superordinate€to€maintain€his€social€distance€(avoidÐ @ Ð"fraternizing"€and€excessive€identification€with€by€theÐ X Ðsubordinate)€while€routinely€engaging€in€the€close„knit€face„to„Ð Ð  Ðface€interaction€by€which€traditional€authority€is€exercised.€Ð ˜è ÐSince€hegemony€is€fundamentally€based€upon€the€thinking€of€theÐ ` ° Ðsubordinate€class€in€question,€using€a€strictly€behavioralÐ ( x Ðdefinition€of€deference€has€little€bearing€on€the€question€of€theÐ ð @ Ðelite's€success€in€getting€the€subordinate€class€to€believe€inÐ ¸   Ðits€ideology.€€As€a€result,€a€mask€can€conceal€a€considerableÐ € Ð  Ðamount€of€class€consciousness.€€Newby,€"Deferential€Dialectic,"Ð H ˜  Ð142„43,€158„60. ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú558Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€385. ^ Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú559Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓClark€insists€that€the€essence€of€patriarchalism„„hisÐ ° Ðpreferred€term€for€the€same€concept„„is€hierarchy€and€divinelyÐ xÈ Ðappointed,€inherent€authority€based€on€the€model€of€the€familyÐ @ Ðbeing€applied€analogously€to€the€state.€€It€is€not€"fatherly€careÐ X Ðas€a€gloss€on€collectivism,€or€the€degree€of€kindliness€we€mightÐ Ð  Ðfancy€we€can€measure€in€social€relations."€€But€for€this€doctrineÐ ˜è Ðto€have€legitimacy€to€the€lower€class,€it€must€involve€more€thanÐ ` ° Ðmere€obedience€and€subjection€to€the€upper€class.€€Paternalism€isÐ ( x Ðnot€just€mere€"dictatorship"€or€"tyranny,"€but€involves€a€systemÐ ð @ Ðof€unequal€rights€and€duties€in€which€the€upper€class€is€favoredÐ ¸   Ðbecause€supposedly€it€looks€out€for€the€interests€of€all€ofÐ € Ð  Ðsociety,€including€the€lower€class,€not€just€its€own.€While€ClarkÐ H ˜  Ðrightly€points€out,€in€a€reply€to€E.P.€Thompson,€that€"a€modelÐ `  Ðwhich€relies€on€'emotional€cosiness'€or€justice„as„fairness€isÐ Ø(  Ðlikely€to€be€applicable€to€no€period,"€historians€(if€theÐ  ð  Ðdocumentation€is€available)€can€still€crudely€gauge€how€much€of€aÐ h¸  Ðreality€this€aspect€of€the€paternalistic€model€has.€€The€New€PoorÐ 0€  ÐLaw€of€1834,€combined€with€such€generally€earlier€moves€asÐ øH  Ðenclosure,€the€decline€of€service,€and€the€tightening€of€theÐ À Ðscrews€on€relief€under€the€Old€Poor€Law,€were€decisive€signs€thatÐ ˆØ Ðthe€upper€class€was€rewriting€the€social€contract,€and€turningÐ P  Ðaway€from€paternalism€in€practice.€The€growing€acceptance€in€theÐ h Ðearly€nineteenth€century€of€Malthusianism€and€Classical€economicsÐ à0 Ðamong€the€rural€elite--something€which€Clark€would€contest--mayÐ ¨ø Ðnot€have€reduced€the€hypocrisy€level€greatly,€depending€on€howÐ pÀ Ðoften€paternalistic€rhetoric€was€resorted€to€simultaneously,€orÐ 8ˆ Ðby€the€same€individuals.€€See€Clark,€òòEnglish€Societyóó,€pp.€74„75.€€ ÒÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú560Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€pp.€113,€137. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú561Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€rising€of€the€laborers'€political€consciousness€andÐ ° Ðthe€farmworkers'€unions,€note€the€incidental€discussion€by€G.E.Ð xÈ ÐMingay€in€Hartwell,€òòThe€Long€Debate€on€Povertyóó,€pp.€43,€45. JÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú562Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓNorthrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€p.€75;€Committee€on€theÐ ° ÐNew€Poor€Law,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,€p.€16;€second€report,€p.Ð xÈ Ð23.  Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú563Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOf€course,€those€laborers€who€lived€in€close€parishes€withÐ ° Ðtied€cottages,€i.e.,€farmer„€or€landlord„provided€("company")Ð xÈ Ðhousing€generally€had€better€housing,€but€were€subject€toÐ @ Ðsignificantly€more€control.€€If€they€were€fired,€they€lost€theirÐ X Ðjobs€and€homes€just€as€instantly.€€"Mr.€Trethewy,€agent€to€LadyÐ Ð  ÐCowper€[in€Bedfordshire,€where€the€farmers€had€full€control€overÐ ˜è Ðthe€cottages€and€who€lived€in€them€on€her€estates€said]€...€heÐ ` ° Ðhas€never€known€any€evil€result€to€the€labourer€from€his€beingÐ ( x Ðbrought€more€under€the€control€of€the€farmer."€€Agar,Ð ð @ ÐòòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€21. }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú564Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAdmittedly,€the€poor€rates€had€fallen€nearly€one„thirdÐ ° Ðfrom€the€1815„20€period€to€1830„35,€bearing€witness€to€the€ruralÐ xÈ Ðelite's€success€in€tightening€the€screws€in€the€last€years€of€theÐ @ ÐOld€Poor€Law.€€Mulhall€estimated€the€pence€paid€per€inhabitant€inÐ X ÐEngland€under€it€fell€from€152€to€114€during€this€time,€and€as€aÐ Ð  Ðpercent€of€the€national€income,€3.25€to€1.75.€€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,Ð ˜è ÐòòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€51.€€The€fall€in€productivity€combined€with€theÐ ` ° Ðfears€induced€by€the€Swing€Riots€may€have€been€as€importantÐ ( x Ðreasons€for€the€passage€of€the€New€Poor€Law€as€high€poor€rates. õÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú565Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCited€by€Thompson,€"Time,€Work„Discipline,€IndustrialÐ ° ÐCapitalism,"€84. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú566Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€235. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú567Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArguably,€a€third€exists,€Elkins'€"Sambo"€hypothesis,€butÐ ° Ðit€differs€considerably€from€these€two.€€His€analysis€uses€socialÐ xÈ Ðpsychology€and€maintains€the€pressures€of€slavery€bent€theÐ @ V Ðpersonality€of€the€slaves,€not€so€much€their€ideology,€as€isÐ ° Ðdiscussed€in€the€next€section€(pp.€333„336). +Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú568Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€some€of€Scott's€relevant€points€on€this€matter,€seeÐ ° ÐScott,€òòDomination€and€the€Arts€of€Resistanceóó,€pp.€190,€193„94. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú569Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€598;€Fogel€and€Engerman,Ð ° ÐòòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:210,€225. ¼Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú570Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ó"The€slaves'€response€to€paternalism€and€their€imaginativeÐ ° Ðcreation€of€a€partially€autonomous€religion€provided€a€record€ofÐ xÈ Ðsimultaneous€accommodation€and€resistance€to€slavery."€€Genovese,Ð @ ÐòòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€597,€598. ÆÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú571Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓAnderson,€"Aunt€Jemima€in€Dialectics,"€113. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú572Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJones,€òòReligious€Instructionóó,€pp.€130„131,€as€cited€inÐ ° ÐBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€316;€Chesnut,€òòDiary€from€Dixieóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€269,€292„93.€€See€also€p.€433.€€Incidently,€and€ironically,Ð @ Ðthis€officer's€servant€likely€constitutes€a€striking€case€ofÐ X Ðsuccessful€hegemonic€indoctrination. þÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú573Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€510„11;€Scott,Ð ° ÐòòDominationóó,€p.€24. öÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú574Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBrent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€162,€173;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€86,Ð ° Ð134. ;Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú575Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€90;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€66,Ð ° Ð132„33;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€159;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€134. }Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú576Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€200,€363,€433„34;€Botkin,€òòLayÐ ° ÐMy€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€164„65,€190;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:340;Ð xÈ ÐStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€90„91 aÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú577Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€3;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€49;Ð ° Ðsee€also€pp.€120,€263€and€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:105€forÐ xÈ Ðsimilar€declarations. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú578Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€the€discussion€in€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð609„12;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€283. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú579Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€53,€55,€135,€139,€309;€Allmendinger,Ð ° Ð"Acting€and€Slavery,"òòóó€510„13. ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú580Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKemble,€òòJournalóó,€pp.€163„64;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð ° Ð1:47.€€While€he€noted€how€one€black€man€strongly€protestedÐ xÈ Ðagainst€three€whites€who€shoved€and€hit€him€out€into€the€middleÐ @ Ðof€the€street,€this€defiance€was€exceptional. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú581Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:260„61;€Ball,€òòSlavery€in€theÐ ° ÐUnited€Statesóó,€p.€58. `Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú582Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThe€best€overview€of€this€controversy€is:€€Ann€J.€Lane,Ð ° Ðed.,€òòThe€Debate€Over€Slavery:€€Stanley€Elkins€and€His€CriticsóóÐ xÈ Ð(Urbana,€IL:€€University€of€Illinois€Press,€1971).€€A€blisteringÐ @ Ðcritique€of€Elkins,€although€its€target€is€often€only€clear€toÐ X Ðthose€familiar€with€this€controversy,€is€in€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ Ð  ÐCommunityóó.€€A€excellent€and€reasonably€brief€critique€of€theÐ ˜è ÐElkins€thesis€is:€€Kenneth€M.€Stampp,€"Rebels€and€Sambos:€€TheÐ ` ° ÐSearch€for€the€Negro's€Personality€in€Slavery,"€òòJournal€ofÐ ( x ÐSouthern€Historyóó€37€(Aug.€1971):367„92.€€Hugh€Tulloch€notes€thatÐ ð @ Ðthe€Elkins€thesis€was€"daring,€cogently€argued€and€satisfyingÐ ¸   V Ðcomplete,€but€had€the€single€disadvantage€of€being€wrong,€andÐ ° Ðevery€study€thereafter€has€contributed€to€the€slow€accumulationÐ xÈ Ðof€counter„evidence€and€implicit€rebuttal."€€"But€the€Cat€HimselfÐ @ ÐKnows:€€Slavery€in€the€Ante„Bellum€South--A€HistoriographicalÐ X ÐSurvey,"€òòHistory€Todayóó€30€(May€1980):58. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú583Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€1:232;€Scott,Ð ° ÐòòDominationóó,€pp.€83„85. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú584Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€"Reflections€on€the€Black€Woman's€Role,"€85;Ð ° ÐElkins,€òòSlaveryóó,€p.€133,€n.€106;€òòFarmer's€Registeróó€5€(MayÐ xÈ Ð1837):32,€as€cited€in€Stamp,€"Rebels€and€Sambos,"€391;€Mary€AgnesÐ @ ÐLewis,€"Notes:€€Slavery€and€Personality:€€A€Further€Comment,"Ð X ÐòòAmerican€Quarterlyóó€21€(spring€1967):118;€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ Ð  ÐCommunityóó,€pp.€223„26;€William€W.€Nichols,€"Slave€Narratives:€Ð ˜è ÐDismissed€Evidence€in€the€Writing€of€Southern€History,"€òòPhylonóó€32Ð ` ° Ð(winter€1971):404„9.€€For€someone€insightfully€drawing€attentionÐ ( x Ðto€the€similarities€to€Genovese's€and€Elkins's€theses,€seeÐ ð @ ÐRichard€H.€King,€"Review€Essay:€€Marxism€and€the€Slave€South,"Ð ¸   ÐòòAmerican€Quarterlyóó€29€(spring€1977):126. rÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú585Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€6,€25„26,€46,€49;Ð ° ÐDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€33;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€211;Ð xÈ ÐStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€124„27. üÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú586Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€75,€106,€192,€239,€346,€359,Ð ° Ð406,€409,€410. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú587Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓLichtenstein,€"'That€Predisposition€to€Theft,''€424„32;Ð ° ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:196;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€157. ½Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú588Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€187,€359. ~Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú589Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€32;€Lichtenstein,€"'ThatÐ ° ÐPredisposition€to€Theft',"€pp.€422„23;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð xÈ Ð2:37,€177,€195„96;€Chesnut,€òòDiary€from€Dixieóó,€p.€348. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú590Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:106.€€For€an€example€of€a€slaveÐ ° Ðfeeling€perfectly€justified€in€successfully€hoodwinking€hisÐ xÈ Ðowner's€into€giving€him€his€unpaid€wages€before€running€away,€andÐ @ ÐJacobs'€somewhat€reluctant€endorsement,€see€òòIncidentsóó,€p.€198;Ð X ÐKemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€277. ÜÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú591Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:219;€Lichtenstein,€"'ThatÐ ° ÐDisposition€to€Theft,'"òòóó€413„439;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€608„9;€In€"The€Old€Allegiance,"€summarized€by€Laurence€Shore,Ð @ Ð"The€Poverty€of€Tragedy€in€Historical€Writing€on€SouthernÐ X ÐSlavery,"€òòSouth€Atlantic€Quarterlyóó€85€(spring€1986):152;€RobertÐ Ð  ÐL.€Paquette,€"Social€History€Update:€€Slave€Resistance€and€SocialÐ ˜è ÐHistory,"€òòJournal€of€Social€Historyóó€24€(spring€1991):684. ÆÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú592Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:118„121,€149,€153,€238;€2:198„Ð ° Ð200,€380„81;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€90,€123,€132,€148,€157,Ð xÈ Ð214,€231,€244,€311,€329;€see€also€Botkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.Ð @ Ð72;€Kemble,€òòJournalóó,€p.€50. ¥Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú593Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:208;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€135,€160,€219,€232,€244.€€For€further€documentation,€see€theÐ xÈ Ðprior€section€dealing€with€slaveholders'€control€strategies€(pp.Ð @ Ð231„35). NÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú594Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:99„100;€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ ° ÐCommunityóó,€pp.€277,€280,€282;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.Ð xÈ Ð305. ˜Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú595Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€52„66.€€See€also€Botkin,Ð ° ÐòòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€195;€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€276„77,Ð xÈ Ð295;òòóó€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€16„21,€357„58,€381„82. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú596Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArmstrong,€òòOld€Massa's€Peopleóó,€pp.€152„53;€Olmsted,€òòCottonÐ ° ÐKingdomóó,€1:71. ²Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú597Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€165;€Armstrong,€òòOld€Massa'sÐ ° ÐPeopleóó,€pp.€126,€173„74;€Davis,€"Changing€Places,"€657,€672„75;Ð xÈ ÐStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€95„96;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,Ð @ Ðp.€381. %Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú598Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€57„61;€Gavin€diary€asÐ ° Ðcited€in€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€114„15. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú599Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€299„300.€€Unquestionably,€the€mildÐ ° Ðtreatment€characteristic€of€her€area€was€due€to€the€extremeÐ xÈ Ðcloseness€of€the€Illinois€border€across€the€Mississippi.€Ð @ ÐSlaveholders€in€such€areas€were€encouraged€to€treat€their€slavesÐ X Ðwell€to€avoid€the€expenses€of€recapturing€them€in€the€North. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú600Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€130;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð206„7;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€135,€359;€see€also€p.€163;Ð xÈ ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:200;€and€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,Ð @ Ðp.€154€for€more€on€how€inflicting€punishment€could€backfireÐ X Ðagainst€slaveholders. ÄÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú601Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€p.€180. 4Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú602Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€115;€Douglass,€òòNarrativeóó,Ð ° Ðp.€80;€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€288;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð xÈ Ð2:200;€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€288;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€204„5;Ð @ ÐNorthrup,€òòTwelve€Years€a€Slaveóó,€pp.€97„101,€106„11;€Genovese,Ð X ÐòòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€655„56.€ rÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú603Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€85,€95;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð56„58,€140,€164;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€18;€Genovese,Ð xÈ ÐòòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€p.€654. àÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú604Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€288„89;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:161„Ð ° Ð62€(see€also€2:21„22);€Davis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€pp.€215,€217,€227,Ð xÈ Ð341;€Brent,€òòIncidentsóó,€pp.€117,€151,€210;€Botkin,€òòLay€My€BurdenÐ @ ÐDownóó,€pp.€179„80;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€145. ¿Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú605Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€293. )Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú606Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€p.€79;€William€S.€Willis,Ð ° Ð"Divide€and€Rule:€€Red,€White,€and€Black€in€the€Southeast,"Ð xÈ ÐòòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€48€(July€1963):163„65;€Davis,Ð @ Ð"Reflections€on€the€Black€Woman's€Role,"€91;€Palmer,€"ServantÐ X Ðinto€Slave,"òòóó€367;€Watson,€"Impulse€Toward€Independence,"òòóó€323. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú607Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKenneth€Wiggins€Porter,€"Negroes€and€the€Seminole€War,Ð ° Ð1835„1842,"€òòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€30€(Nov.€1964):427„50;Ð xÈ ÐOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:155.€€The€story€had€been€differentÐ @ Ðearlier:€€see€Watson,€"Impulse€Toward€Independence,"€322. wÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú608Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€590„91.€€Palmares,€aÐ ° Ðhuge€maroon€colony,€had€upwards€of€20,000€blacks,€and€waged€warsÐ xÈ Ðwith€the€Dutch€and€Portuguese€for€over€a€half€century. RÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú609Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMexico€was€the€favored€destination€of€Texan€slaves€seekingÐ ° Ðpermanent€freedom.€€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:372;€2:7„8,€20,Ð xÈ  Ð91„92,€153. DÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú610Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBarrow€had€one€slave,€"nearly€white"€who€ran€away€from€himÐ ° Ðand€another€planter€in€1835€who€successfully€reached€Canada€allÐ xÈ Ðthe€way€from€Louisiana.€€In€1841€he€wrote,€and€asked€for€theÐ @ Ðfunds€to€return€to€slavery€in€Louisiana.€€This€certainly€seems€aÐ X Ðtrick,€because€of€the€positive€portrayal€of€conditions€in€CanadaÐ Ð  Ðfound€in€Drew,€not€mentioning€how€most€slaves€definitelyÐ ˜è Ðpreferred€freedom€over€bondage€when€given€an€opportunity€for€it.€Ð ` ° ÐDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€231;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.Ð ( x Ð92„94. §Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú611Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€v;€Kolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€288„90.€Ð ° ÐKolchin€cites€quantitative€studies€of€classified€ads€aboutÐ xÈ Ðrunaway€slaves.€€One€study€found€76.6€percent€of€the€fugitivesÐ @ Ðfound€in€the€classified€ads€of€the€South€Carolina€òòGazetteóó€wereÐ X Ðmale,€and€88.3€percent€of€those€listed€in€the€Virginia€òòGazetteóóÐ Ð  Ðduring€a€sixty„seven€year€period€in€the€eighteen€century.€€DanielÐ ˜è ÐMeader,€using€eighteenth„century€South€Carolina€newspapers,€foundÐ ` ° Ð2,001€runaways€listed€in€1,806€notices,€averaging€out€to€1.11Ð ( x Ðfugitive€per€escape.€€Michael€John's€study€of€group€flights€basedÐ ð @ Ðon€Charleston€newspapers€between€1799€and€1830€found€70€percentÐ ¸   Ðof€them€consisted€of€two€people€only.€€This€evidence€underminesÐ € Ð  ÐDrew's€statement€that€"many€of€the€children"€included€in€thisÐ H ˜  Ðpopulation€of€30,000€could€have€been€refugees€from€slavery,Ð `  Ðespecially€when€the€logistics€of€flight€favored€solitary€strongÐ Ø(  Ðunburdened€individual€adults€who€could€more€easily€hide,€evade,Ð  ð  Ðand€escape€from€pursuers. yÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú612Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€648,€652;€Kolchin,Ð ° ÐòòUnfree€Laboróó,€p.€287;€Franklin,€òòFrom€Slavery€to€Freedomóó,€p.€194;Ð xÈ ÐStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€30„31. ÇÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú613Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOlmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€2:153;€Kolchin€draws€a€sharpÐ ° Ðcontrast€between€the€individualistic€choices€of€runaway€slavesÐ xÈ V Ðwith€the€collective€flight€of€families€and€villages€among€RussianÐ ° Ðserfs.€€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€283„85,€288„90. UÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú614Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓStampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€p.€113;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð167„68;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:249,€2:207„8;€The€testimony€ofÐ xÈ ÐAnnie€Coley,€cited€by€Michael€P.€Johnson,€"Smothered€SlaveÐ @ ÐInfants:€€Were€Slave€Mothers€at€Fault?,"€òòJournal€of€SouthernÐ X ÐHistoryóó€47€(Nov.€1981):514;€Bassett,€òòPlantation€Overseeróó,€pp.€18„Ð Ð  Ð19. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú615Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDouglass,€òòNarrativeóó,€p.€83;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€42,€158„59,Ð ° Ð163„70,€255„56. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú616Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBotkin,€òòLay€My€Burden€Downóó,€pp.€175„76;€Chesnut,€òòDiaryÐ ° Ðfrom€Dixieóó,€pp.€139„40,€145„48,€151„52;€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,Ð xÈ Ð2:13;€Watson,€"Impulse€Toward€Independence,"òòóó€320;€Kemble,Ð @ ÐòòJournalóó,€pp.€295,€313„14. åÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú617Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€p.€233;€For€more€on€slavesÐ ° Ðkilling€or€attacking€their€owners€and€their€supervisors,€see:€Ð xÈ ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€361„63;€Franklin,€òòFrom€SlaveryÐ @ Ðto€Freedomóó,€p.€152;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€130„32. 1Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú618Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€588„93;€Blassingame,Ð ° ÐòòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€214„21;€Elkins,€òòSlaveryóó,€pp.€136„37. ØÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú619Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€51,€53,€57,€234„35,€237;Ð ° ÐGenovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€590„91;€Blassingame,€òòSlaveÐ xÈ ÐCommunityóó,€pp.€214„15;€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€pp.Ð @ Ð21,€23;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€30„31. ÐÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú620Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.€214„15;€Genovese,€òòRoll,Ð ° ÐJordan,€Rollóó,€pp.€214„15;€Fogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€26,€28,€242;€Elkins,€òòSlaveryóó,€pp.€136„37;€Kolchin,€òòSlaveryóó,Ð @ Ðpp.€236,€253„54,€343„52,€363„65. ðÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú621Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHerbert€Aptheker,€òòAmerican€Negro€Slave€Revoltsóó,€ColumbiaÐ ° ÐUniversity€Studies€in€the€Social€Sciences,€no.€501€(New€York:€Ð xÈ ÐColumbia€University€Press,€1943);€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,Ð @ Ðpp.€587„88,€596„97.€€Tulloch€noted€that€while€Aptheker€wrote€inÐ X Ðterms€of€250€slave€revolts€in€the€South,€"most€of€them,€it€turnedÐ Ð  Ðout,€document[ed]€White€fears€and€rumours€rather€than€actualÐ ˜è Ðphysical€outbreaks€of€rebellion."€€"But€the€Cat€Himself€Knows,"Ð ` ° Ð57„58. »Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú622Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓMy€emphasis,€Olmsted,€òòCotton€Kingdomóó,€1:42.€€See€alsoÐ ° ÐMarion€D.deB.€Kilson,€"Towards€Freedom:€€An€Analysis€of€SlaveÐ xÈ ÐRevolts€in€the€United€States,"€òòPhylonóó€25€(summer€1964):187;Ð @ ÐChesnut,€òòDiary€from€Dixieóó,€p.€456. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú623Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRichard€C.€Wade,€"The€Vesey€Plot:€€A€Reconsideration,"Ð ° ÐòòJournal€of€Southern€Historyóó€30€(May€1964):150. öÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú624Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓElkins,€òòSlaveryóó,€pp.€218„22;€Stampp,€"Rebels€and€Sambos,"Ð ° Ð369„70. 'Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú625Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓEdwin€A.€Miles,€"The€Mississippi€Slave€Insurrection€ScareÐ ° Ðof€1835,"€òòJournal€of€Negro€Historyóó€42€(Jan.€1957):49„56. fÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú626Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓChristopher€Morris,€"An€Event€in€Community€Organization:€Ð ° ÐThe€Mississippi€Slave€Insurrection€Scare€of€1835,"€òòJournal€ofÐ xÈ ÐSocial€Historyóó€22€(fall€1988):93„111. ÿÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú627Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€198,€200,€215„217;Ð ° ÐFor€more€on€these€panics,€and€the€overkills€and€continualÐ xÈ Ðsuspicions€of€the€whites,€see€Blassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€pp.Ð @ Ð230„38;€Stampp,€òòPeculiar€Institutionóó,€pp.€136„39;€Franklin,€òòFromÐ X ÐSlavery€to€Freedomóó,€p.€218;€Donnie€D.€Bellamy,€"Slavery€inÐ Ð  ÐMicrocosm:€€Onslow€County,€North€Carolina,"€òòJournal€of€NegroÐ ˜è ÐHistoryóó€62€(Oct.€1977):346„47;€Genovese,€òòRoll,€Jordan,€Rollóó,€pp.Ð ` ° Ð595„97. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú628Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓKolchin,€òòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€59„61,€98„102,€132„35,€156,Ð ° Ð235„39,€289,€348„49. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú629Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFogel€and€Engerman,€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó,€2:210;€Kolchin,Ð ° ÐòòUnfree€Laboróó,€pp.€242„43. kÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú630Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓPaquette,€"Social€History€Update,"€682„684;€King,€"MarxismÐ ° Ðand€the€Slave€South,"€127,€discussing€Genovese.€€He€notes€theÐ xÈ Ðescaped€slaves€in€some€maroon€colonies€"sanctioned€forms€ofÐ @ Ðdependency€including€slavery,"€which€demonstrates€they€were€notÐ X Ðrebelling€against€the€idea€of€slavery€in€itself€necessarily€byÐ Ð  Ðchoosing€to€run€away€to€join€these€groups€to€begin€with. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú631Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ó"Not€all€people€have€survived€enslavement;€hence€her€[theÐ ° Ðslave€woman's]€survival„oriented€[which€included€domestic€laborÐ xÈ Ðsuch€as€cooking,€sewing,€washing,€raising€children,€and€cleaningÐ @ Ðhouse]€activities€were€themselves€a€form€of€resistance."€€Wright,Ð X Ð"Reflections€on€the€Black€Woman's€Role,"€86„87. {Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú632Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDale€Edward€Williams,€"Morals,€markets€and€the€EnglishÐ ° Ðcrowd€in€1766,"€òòPast€and€Presentóó,€no.€104€(August€1984),€pp.€69„Ð xÈ Ð70,€as€noted€in€Harrison,€òòCrowds€and€Historyóó,€p.€13. 5Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú633Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€141,€404;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð150„52,€158„59,€162;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€212„13. ?Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú634Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSomerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€38„39,€272„79;€Hudson,Ð ° ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€79„80,€84„90.€€See€also€Emsley,€"Crime€inÐ xÈ Ð19th„Century€Britain,"€44;€Robert€Long's€diary€as€found€in€Agar,Ð @ ÐòòBefordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€p.€111;€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillageÐ X ÐLaboureróó,€pp.€186,€191;€Cobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€159„60,€435„36.òòóó ¨Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú635Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Ócited€by€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€187;Ð ° ÐArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€159„161;€cf.€Bawcombe's€attitude€inÐ xÈ ÐHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€p.€81€and€Cobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€438„Ð @ Ð440. úÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú636Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€155;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.Ð ° Ð80,€94. OÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú637Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCobbett,€òòRural€Ridesóó,€pp.€160,€440„41;€Hammond€andÐ ° ÐHammond,€òòVillage€Laboreróó,€pp.€188,€190;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,Ð xÈ Ðp.€54. ¶Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú638Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€163„64.€€Comparing€this€attitude€toÐ ° ÐFrederick€Douglass'€on€"taking"€is€especially€instructive.€Ð xÈ ÐHowever€ironic€for€the€line€Arch€drew€here,€around€Kirdford€inÐ @ ÐSussex€after€the€New€Poor€Law€went€into€operation,€all€of€theÐ X Ð"fowls"€of€one€farmer€and€most€of€his€neighbor€had€been€stolen,Ð Ð  Ðand€pilfering€generally€had€increased.€€Committee€on€New€PoorÐ ˜è ÐLaw,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€10. ´Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú639Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€Allotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€2;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,Ð ° Ð2:88;€Hudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€221„22,€224„27;€Arch,€òòJosephÐ xÈ ÐArchóó,€p.€14;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€p.€95.€€See€also€pp.€273,€407„Ð @ Ð8. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú640Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJoanna€Innes€and€John€Styles,€"The€Crime€Wave:€€RecentÐ ° ÐWriting€on€Crime€and€Criminal€Justice€in€Eighteenth„CenturyÐ xÈ ÐEngland,"€òòJournal€of€British€Studiesóó€25€(Oct.€1986):389„95;Ð @ ÐStyles,€"Crime€in€18th„Century€England,"€38„39;€Hammond€andÐ X ÐHammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€p.€189. mÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú641Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFor€more€on€this€cause€of€crime,€see€Committee€onÐ ° ÐAllotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€32;€Mark€Baker,€"Aspects€of€the€Life€ofÐ xÈ Ðthe€Wiltshire€Agricultural€Labourer,€c.€1850,"€òòWiltshireÐ @ ÐArchaeological€Magazineóó€74/75€(1981):64.€€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,Ð X Ðpp.€139„40€ties€crimes€to€the€insecurity€of€work€coming€from€at„Ð Ð  Ðwill€tenancies€and€the€lack€of€annual€hirings. »Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú642Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€147. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú643Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?Óas€quoted€in€Snell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€6„7.€€The€town€dwellers,Ð ° Ðrich€or€middle€class,€knew€little€better€the€mind€of€theÐ xÈ Ðfarmworkers.€€See€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€p.€12.€Ð @ ÐInterestingly,€the€stereotypes€of€Sambo€and€Hodge€diverge€inÐ X Ðseveral€key€aspects,€although€they€are€inevitably€self„servingÐ Ð  Ðcreations€of€the€dominant€class€in€both€societies.€€Sambo€is€seenÐ ˜è Ðas€a€perpetual€child,€as€being€fun„loving€and€energetic€butÐ ` ° Ðirresponsible,€while€Hodge€is€seen€as€slow€in€gait€and€talk,€asÐ ( x Ðnoncommunicative€and€monosyllabic,€but,€nevertheless,€as€anÐ ð @ Ðadult,€as€more€steady€in€his€habits,€despite€his€pub€frequenting. ºÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú644Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€p.€11. jÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú645Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€94„96;€Committee€onÐ ° ÐAllotments,€òòBPPóó,€1843,€p.€10;€Jeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:131,€134;Ð xÈ ÐCirket,€"1830€Riots€in€Bedfordshire,"€96. oÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú646Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCommittee€on€the€New€Poor€Law€,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€first€report,Ð ° Ðp.€4;€for€a€case€of€opposition,€see€Morgan,€òòHarvestersóó,€p.€123;Ð xÈ ÐOlmsted,€òòWalks€and€Talksóó,€p.€273. ÎÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú647Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€96,€106,€108,€174„220. ®Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú648Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓIbid.,€òòóóp.€40. qÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú649Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBogusia€Wojciechowska,€"Brenchley:€€A€Study€of€MigratoryÐ ° ÐMovements€in€a€Mid„Nineteenth€Century€Rural€Parish,"€òòLocalÐ xÈ ÐPopulation€Studiesóó,€no.€41€(autumn€1988),€pp.€32„35. ·Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú650Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,1:122. »Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú651Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSnell,€òòAnnalsóó,€pp.€338„39. /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú652Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓFactory€Commission,€Supplementary€Report,€1834,€part€i,€p.Ð ° Ð169,€as€cited€in€the€Hammond€and€Hammond,€òòTown€Laboureróó,€p.€12. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú653Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓJeffries,€òòHodgeóó,€1:66;€as€found€in€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€FarmÐ ° ÐWorkeróó,€pp.€107„8. ÇÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú654Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓCompare€Scott,€òòDominationóó,€pp.€213„19. /Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú655Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓThompson,€"Moral€Economy€of€the€English€Crowd,"€76„136.€Ð ° ÐSee€also€Harrison,€òòCrowds€and€Historyóó,€pp.€12„13;€Hammond€andÐ xÈ ÐHammond,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€116„18,€173„74.€€By€extrapolatingÐ @ Ðfrom€the€unusual€restlessness€of€Cornish€miners,€Rule€mistakenlyÐ X Ðsees€food€riots€as€common.€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€348„53. ÉÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú656Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€Rule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€351„53. AÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú657Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€the€Swing€Riots€generally,€see€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,Ð ° ÐòòCaptain€Swingóó,€passim,€but€especially€pp.€170,€173„75,€195„203,Ð xÈ Ð212,€262,€357„58;€Hammonds,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€239„326;€Rule,Ð @ ÐòòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€357„63;€E.P.€Thompson,€òòMakingóó,€pp.€226„29;Ð X ÐHudson,€òòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€pp.€195„201,€203,€207,€229„35;€Cirket,Ð Ð  Ð"1830€Riots€in€Bedfordshire,"€75„112;€Barbara€Kerr,€òòBound€to€theÐ ˜è ÐSoil:€€A€social€History€of€Dorset€1750„1918óó€(London:€€John€Baker,Ð ` ° Ð1968),€pp.€100„115;€Somerville,€òòWhistleróó,€pp.€261„65. ªÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú658Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓOn€laborers'€distaste€for€threshing,€see€Hudson,Ð ° ÐòòShepherd's€Lifeóó,€p.€207.€€On€the€connection€between€Swing€andÐ xÈ ÐReform,€and€the€effects€on€wages€and€machine€threshing,€seeÐ @ ÐThompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€228;€Dyke,€"Cobbett€and€the€Radical€RuralÐ X ÐPlatform,"€p.€199;€for€a€more€cautious€analysis€of€the€politicalÐ Ð  Ðconnections,€and€for€the€marginal€economic€benefits€of€machineÐ ˜è Ðthreshing,€see€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€296„99,€359„Ð ` ° Ð65;€on€mask€thickening,€see€Report€from€Select€Committee€on€PoorÐ ( x ÐLaw€Amendment€Act,€òòBPPóó,€1837,€second€report,€p.€10;€see€alsoÐ ð @ Ðfirst€report,€pp.€38,€49. ÅÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú659Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€pp.€310„12. HÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú660Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€the€research€of€Jones€and€Lowerson€cited€in€Rule,Ð ° ÐòòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€362;€Hammonds,€òòVillage€Laboureróó,€pp.€237„Ð xÈ Ð38. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú661Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓHobsbawm€and€Rude,€òòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€292„96.€€Among€theÐ ° Ðleaders€of€the€Agricultural€Labourers'€Union€that€began€in€1872,Ð xÈ Ðmost€were€local€Methodist€preachers€such€as€Arch€sometimes€wasÐ @ Ðhimself,€while€none€were€trained€for€service€as€Anglicans.€€Arch,Ð X ÐòòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€xi„xii. KÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú662Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€67„73;€Jones€is€cited€inÐ ° ÐWojciechowska,€"Brenchley,"€p.€30;€Caird,€òòEnglish€Agricultureóó,Ð xÈ Ðpp.€512,€514. „Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú663Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€xiii,€110„111,€235,€253„54,€275,Ð ° Ð281,€288„89,€333,€376,€380„86,€390„91,€401;€for€the€1875€split,Ð xÈ Ðsee€Agar,€òòBedfordshire€Farm€Workeróó,€pp.€8„10,€(Long),€p.€109. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú664Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓRule,€òòLabouring€Classesóó,€p.€20. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú665Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€134„37,€233„34;€Somerville,Ð ° ÐòòWhistleróó,€pp.€381„382. þÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú666Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓBlassingame,€òòSlave€Communityóó,€p.€219;€Arch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,Ð ° Ðpp.€74„75. 8Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú667Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€the€"Public€Notice"€reproduced€in€Hobsbawm€and€Rude,Ð ° ÐòòCaptain€Swingóó,€pp.€156.€€Thompson,€òòMakingóó,€p.€226€ignores€thisÐ xÈ Ðresponse€by€a€number€of€local€magistrates€when€he€wrote€the€riotsÐ @ Ðwere€"met€with€the€same€sense€of€outrage€as€a€rising€of€theÐ X Ð'blacks'."€€Even€when€later€London€unleashed€a€wave€ofÐ Ð  Ðrepression,€the€blood€drawn€was€much€less€than€that€surroundingÐ ˜è Ðany€major€American€slave€revolt€or€conspiracy,€especially€whenÐ ` ° Ðthe€relative€size€of€the€Swing€Riots€to€these€are€taken€intoÐ ( x Ðaccount. ÄÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú668Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓArch,€òòJoseph€Archóó,€pp.€222,€224„25. uÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú669Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓSee€the€summary€in€Peter€Novick,€òòThat€Noble€Dream:€€TheÐ ° Ð'Objectivity€Question'€and€the€American€Historical€ProfessionóóÐ xÈ Ð(New€York:€€Cambridge€University€Press,€1988),€p.€480. Ý ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú670Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓShore,€"Poverty€of€Tragedy,"€147„48,€155,€157,€159„60,Ð ° Ð162„63;€Drew,€òòRefugeeóó,€p.€78. FÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú671Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓW.E.B.€Dubois€regarded€the€slaves'€necessary€"defence€ofÐ ° Ðdeception€and€flattery"€as€causing€"a€moral€hesitancy€which€isÐ xÈ Ðfatal€to€self„confidence,"€that€living€a€"double€life,€withÐ @ Ðdouble€thoughts,€double€duties"€involved€a€"peculiar€wrench€ofÐ X Ðthe€soul."€€òòSouls€of€Black€Folkóó,€as€cited€in€Shore,€"Poverty€ofÐ Ð  ÐTragedy,"€161. ÀÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú672Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€òòPlantation€Lifeóó,€p.€409. ÁÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú673Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDrew,€òòRefugeeóó,€pp.€123,€128„130. äÝ ƒó~$ÝÓ  ÓÓÓ€€€€€òòÚ  Ú674Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÓ?+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°œX?ÓDavis,€"Slavery€and€the€Post„World€War€II€Historians,"€9.3|d «2þ6X9`("Courier 12cpiXÂdþ6X@Ƀ8åX@( ¤T$¡¡Ó  Ó˜Adobe PDFxX,,,,xX0 @á:é Ë}…8 …T¹ÝÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ dÝ ƒ­¤T!ÝÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ_ ÔÑ8€bøXXdÈdÈ8Ñà@ìì3ìàˆÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌà@ìì3ìàˆÌà@xx*ìàWHO€WAS€BETTER€OFF?ˆÐ 0€  Ðà@°°ìàA€COMPARISON€OF€AMERICAN€SLAVES€AND€ENGLISH€AGRICULTURAL€WORKERS,ˆÐ øH  Ð1750„1875Ð À ÐÌà@ìì3ìàˆÌÌà@tt2ìàBYˆÐ à0 Ðà@-ìàERIC€V.€SNOWˆÐ ¨ø ÐÌà@ìì3ìàˆÌà@ìì3ìàˆÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ ˆ,Ø'3 Їò òó óà@ðð+ìàTABLE€OF€CONTENTSÓo[°X°` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#€%Ø'0*ˆ,à.813è5@8˜:ð<H? A°œXoӈР° ÐÓ$°Ð˜4!°œX$ÓÌ1.€€WHY€COMPARE€ENGLISH€LABORERS€AND€AMERICAN€SLAVES€TO€BEGINÐ @ ÐWITH?€€.€.€10Ð X ÐÌà  àThe€Standard€Comparison€of€Factory€Workers€with€Slavesà4!ƒ­.X X Hà10€€Ð ˜è Ðà  àWhy€Do€Such€a€Comparison?à4!ƒ­.ÀÀ+à10Ð ` ° Ðà  àWhat€Exactly€Is€Compared€Out€of€Each€Diverse€Groupà4!ƒ­.xxDà12Ð ( x Ðà  àFive€Broad€Areas€for€Comparison€Purposesà4!ƒ­.ÈÈ:à12Ð ð @ Ðà  àÌ2.€€A€HISTORICAL€PERENNIAL:€€THE€STANDARD€OF€LIVING€DEBATEà4!ƒ­.ààFà14Ð € Ð  ÐÌà  àSome€Theoretical€Problems€in€Comparing€Slaves€and€Laborers'€Ð `  Ðà  àà Ð àStandard€of€Livingà4!ƒ­.@@&à14Ð Ø(  Ðà  àà Ð àà ˜ àÌà  àDiet€and€the€Standard€of€Living€for€Slavesà4!ƒ­.¸¸<à17Ð h¸  Ðà  àFogel€and€Engerman's€Optimistic€Reconstructions€of€the€Slave€Ð 0€  Ðà  àà Ð àDietà4!ƒ­.° ° à18Ð øH  Ðà  àThe€Slave€Diet€as€Crude,€Coarse,€and€Boringà4!ƒ­.00=à21Ð À Ðà  àDiffering€Diets€for€Slaves€with€Different€Positionsà4!ƒ­.ððEà23Ð ˆØ Ðà  àThe€Slaves'€Role€in€Providing€Themselves€with€Food€on€TheirÐ P  Ðà  àà Ð àOwnà4!ƒ­.8 8 àÐ h Ðà  à25Ð à0 Ðà  àVariations€in€What€Food€Different€Slaveowners€Provided€Their€Ð ¨ø Ðà  àà Ð àOwn€Slaves€Withà4!ƒ­.ØØ#à26Ð pÀ Ðà  àThe€Diet€of€English€Farmworkers:€€Regional€Variationsà4!ƒ­.ààGà28Ð 8ˆ Ðà  àThe€Southern€English€Agricultural€Workers'€Diet€Was€Poor,Ð P Ðà  àà Ð àOften€Meatlessà4!ƒ­.``"à30Ð È Ðà  àGrains,€Especially€Wheat,€Dominate€the€Agricultural€Workers'Ð à Ðà  àà Ð àDietà4!ƒ­.° ° à32Ð X¨ Ðà  àThe€Role€of€Potatoes€in€the€Laborers'€Diet,€Despite€Ð  p Ðà  àà Ð àPrejudices€Against€Themà4!ƒ­.˜˜+à33Ð è8 Ðà  àDid€Farmworkers€Prefer€Coarse€or€Fine€Food?à4!ƒ­.00=à34Ð °  Ðà  àThe€Monotony€of€the€Farmworkers'€Diet€in€the€South€ofÐ xÈ! 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Ðà  àBad€Clothing€Conditions€for€Slavesà4!ƒ­.øø4à45Ð h)¸$/ Ðà  àDifferences€in€Clothing€Provided€for€Slaves€with€Different€Ð 0*€%0 Ðà  àà Ð àPositionà4!ƒ­. à46Ð ø*H&1 Ðà  àThe€Factory€Versus€Homespun:€€The€Master's€Decisionà4!ƒ­.ððEà48Ð À+'2 Ðà  àSlaves€and€Shoe€Shortagesà4!ƒ­.ÀÀ+à49Ð ˆ,Ø'3 Ðà  àFogel€and€Engerman's€Optimistic€Take€on€Slaves'€ClothingÐ ° Ðà  àà Ð àRationsà4!ƒ­.  à51Ð xÈ Ðà  àClothing€and€English€Agricultural€Workersà4!ƒ­.@@;à51Ð @ Ðà  àThe€Low€Standards€for€Farmworkers,€Especially€in€SouthernÐ X Ðà  àà Ð àEnglandà4!ƒ­.  à52Ð Ð  Ðà  àHomespun€More€Common€in€America€than€England€by€C.€1830Ð ˜è Ðà  à53Ð ` ° Ðà  àSpecial€Measures€Needed€to€Buy€Their€Own€Clothesà4!ƒ­.ˆˆBà54Ð ( x Ðà  àHousing€For€Slaves:€€Variations€around€a€Low€AverageÐ ð @ ÐStandardà4!ƒ­.ppà55Ð ¸   Ðà  àCases€of€Good€Slave€Housesà4!ƒ­.88,à58Ð € Ð  Ðà  àWas€Poor€White€Housing€Little€Better€than€the€Slaves'?à4!ƒ­.X X Hà59Ð H ˜  Ðà  àFogel€and€Engerman's€Optimistic€View€of€Slave€Housingà4!ƒ­.ààGà59Ð `  Ðà  àGenovese's€Overly€Optimistic€Take€on€Slave€Housingà4!ƒ­.xxDà60Ð Ø(  Ðà  àThe€Moral€Hazards€of€Crowded,€One„Room€Slave€Housesà4!ƒ­.ððEà62Ð  ð  Ðà  àSlave€Housing--Sanitation€and€Cleanlinessà4!ƒ­.@@;à63Ð h¸  Ðà  àEnglish€Farmworkers'€Housing--Quality/Sizeà4!ƒ­.¸¸<à64Ð 0€  Ðà  àPoor€Housing€Leads€to€Sexual€Immoralityà4!ƒ­.PP9à66Ð øH  Ðà  àHow€the€Artist's€Eye€Can€Be€Self„Deceiving€When€EvaluatingÐ À Ðà  àà Ð àCottages'€Qualityà4!ƒ­.ÈÈ%à68Ð ˆØ Ðà  àHow€Rentals€and€the€Poor€and€Settlement€Laws€Made€for€PoorÐ P  Ðà  àà Ð àQuality€Housingà4!ƒ­.ØØ#à69Ð h Ðà  àThe€Problem€of€Cottages€Being€Distant€from€Workà4!ƒ­.Aà70Ð à0 Ðà  àThe€Aristocracy's€Paternalism€in€Providing€Housing,€and€ItsÐ ¨ø Ðà  àà Ð àLimitsà4!ƒ­.    à71Ð pÀ Ðà  àLittle€Difference€for€Slaves€and€Farmworkers€in€the€QualityÐ 8ˆ Ðof€Ð P Ðà  àà Ð àTheir€Housingà4!ƒ­.è è !à73Ð È Ðà  àAgricultural€Workers--Sanitation/Cleanlinessà4!ƒ­.¨¨>à74Ð à Ðà  àSlaves--Furniture€and€Personal€Effectsà4!ƒ­.ØØ8à76Ð X¨ Ðà  àEnglish€Agricultural€Workers:€€Home€Furnishings,€Utensils,Ð  p Ðà  àà Ð àetc.à4!ƒ­.° ° à78Ð è8 Ðà  àFuel--Sambo's€Supply€Versus€Hodge'sà4!ƒ­.pp5à79Ð °  Ðà  àSambo's€Medical€Careà4!ƒ­.hh&à82Ð xÈ! Ðà  àThe€General€Backwardness€of€Antebellum€Medical€Careà4!ƒ­.ððEà83Ð @" Ðà  àMasters€Sought€Ways€to€Reduce€Medical€Expensesà4!ƒ­.˜˜@à84Ð  X# Ðà  àMasters€and€Overseers€as€Amateur€Healers€for€Slavesà4!ƒ­.ððEà84Ð Ð $ Ðà  àBlack€Medical€Self„Help:€€Conjurors€and€Midwivesà4!ƒ­.ˆˆBà86Ð ˜!è% Ðà  àMedical€Care€for€English€Agricultural€Workersà4!ƒ­.  ?à87Ð `"°& Ðà  àWhose€Medical€Care€Was€Better?€€Hodge's?€€Or€Sambo's?à4!ƒ­.ààGà91Ð (#x' Ðà  àThe€Overall€Material€Standard€of€Living:€€Was€Hodge€or€Sambo€Ð ð#@( Ðà  àà Ð àBetter€Off?à4!ƒ­.ø ø à92Ð ¸$ ) Ðà  àTrickle„Down€Economics€with€a€Vengeance:€€How€the€SlavesÐ €%Ð * Ðà  àà Ð àBenefitedà4!ƒ­.  à93Ð H&˜!+ Ðà  àÓ'°Ð˜Ð °‚È4!'ÓÌ3.€€THE€QUALITY€OF€LIFE:€€SLAVES€VERSUS€AGRICULTURAL€WORKERSÐ Ø'(#- Ðà  à€95Ð  (ð#. ÐÌà  àThe€Quality€of€Life€as€Opposed€to€the€(Material)€Standard€ofÐ 0*€%0 Ðà  àà Ð àLivingàÐ ƒ­.    à€95Ð ø*H&1 Ðà  àLiteracy€and€Education€for€African„American€SlavesàÐ ƒ­.xxDà€96Ð À+'2 Ðà  àWhy€Slaveholders€Sought€to€Keep€Slaves€IlliterateàÐ ƒ­.Cà€98Ð ˆ,Ø'3 Ðà  àEnglish€Farmworkers,€Literacy€and€EducationàÐ ƒ­.00=à102Ð ° Ðà  àA€Brief€Sketch€of€the€Development€of€English€PublicÐ xÈ ÐEducationàÐ ƒ­.èèà104Ð @ Ðà  àWhat€Age€Did€Child€Labor€Begin€and€Schooling€End?àÐ ƒ­.Cà105Ð X Ðà  àIgnorance€Versus€Skewed€Knowledge:€€Different€Models€for€Ð Ð  Ðà  àà Ð àControlling€a€Subordinate€ClassàÐ ƒ­.XX3à106Ð ˜è Ðà  àSlaves--The€Treatment€of€Elderly€"Aunts"€and€"Uncles"àÐ ƒ­.ààGà109Ð ` ° Ðà  àAltruism€and€Self„Interest€Did€Not€Necessarily€Conveniently€Ð ( x Ðà  àà Ð àCoincide€to€Protect€Elderly€Slaves'€LivesàÐ ƒ­.=à110Ð ð @ Ðà  àDid€Slavery€Provide€More€Security€Against€Starvation€than€Ð ¸   Ðà  àà Ð àLaissez„Faire?àÐ ƒ­.``"à110Ð € Ð  Ðà  àOdd€Jobs€for€Elderly€SlavesàÐ ƒ­.°°-à112Ð H ˜  Ðà  àThe€Senior€Hodge:€€Cared€for,€or€Fends€for€Himself?àÐ ƒ­.ððEà113Ð `  Ðà  àThe€Effects€of€the€New€Poor€Law€on€the€Elderly,€Non„WorkingÐ Ø(  Ðà  àà Ð àPooràÐ ƒ­.° ° à115Ð  ð  Ðà  àHow€the€Local€Authorities€Profited€from€the€Workhouse€TestÐ h¸  Ðà  à117Ð 0€  Ðà  àWhose€Elderly€Were€Better€Off?€€The€Farmworkers'€or€theÐ øH  Ðà  àà Ð àSlaves'?àÐ ƒ­. à118Ð À Ðà  àThe€Slave€Childhood:€€Full€of€Fun€or€Full€of€Fear?àÐ ƒ­.xxDà119Ð ˆØ Ðà  àPastimes€for€Slave€ChildrenàÐ ƒ­.°°-à120Ð P  Ðà  àPlantation€Day€Care:€€How€Slave€Childhood€Was€DifferentÐ h Ðà  à123Ð à0 Ðà  àIs€All€Work€Bad€for€Children?àÐ ƒ­.  /à124Ð ¨ø Ðà  àThe€Slave€Childhood:€€Good,€Bad,€or€Indifferent?àÐ ƒ­.ˆˆBà125Ð pÀ Ðà  àHodge's€Childhood:€€More€Work,€But€More€Worthwhile?àÐ ƒ­.ððEà126Ð 8ˆ Ðà  àJust€How€Common€Was€Child€Labor,€Especially€in€theÐ P Ðà  àà Ð àCountrysideàÐ ƒ­.ø ø à128Ð È Ðà  àThe€Parental€Push€for€Child€LaboràÐ ƒ­.€€3à130Ð à Ðà  àDay€Care€Not€a€Common€ExperienceàÐ ƒ­.2à131Ð X¨ Ðà  àYoung€Hodge€at€PlayàÐ ƒ­.ðð%à132Ð  p Ðà  àThe€Relative€Quality€of€Life€for€the€Children€of€Slaves€andÐ è8 Ðà  àà Ð àLaborersàÐ ƒ­. à133Ð °  Ðà  àReligion--A€Site€for€Enlightenment,€Social€Unity,€and€SocialÐ xÈ! 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Ðà  àEnglish€Agricultural€Workers€and€ChristianityàÐ ƒ­.  ?à149Ð h)¸$/ Ðà  àReasons€for€the€Established€Church's€Unpopularity€with€the€Ð 0*€%0 Ðà  àà Ð àLaborersàÐ ƒ­. à149Ð ø*H&1 Ðà  àHow€the€Local€Elite€Can€Use€Charity€to€Control€the€PoorÐ À+'2 Ðà  à151Ð ˆ,Ø'3 Ðà  àThe€Laborersðð€Turn€to€Nonconformity€and€Its€Mixed€ResultsÐ ° Ðà  à153Ð xÈ Ðà  àChristianity:€€An€Instigator€of€Laborers'€Resistance?àÐ ƒ­.ààGà154Ð @ Ðà  àSimilarities€in€Southern€White€and€English€Lower€ClassÐ X Ðà  àà Ð àReligionàÐ ƒ­. à155Ð Ð  Ðà  àSomehow€Seeking€Participation€in€and€Control€of€One'sÐ ˜è Ðà  àà Ð àDestiny:€€The€Consolations€of€Faith?àÐ ƒ­.°°8à156Ð ` ° Ðà  àThe€Slave€Family:€€How€Well€Did€It€Survive€Slavery?àÐ ƒ­.ððEà157Ð ( x Ðà  àThe€Family€Bonds€of€Slaves€Made€Conditional€Upon€theÐ ð @ Ðà  àà Ð àStability€of€the€SlaveholdersàÐ ƒ­.hh1à159Ð ¸   Ðà  àThe€Routine€Destruction€of€Family€Relationships€underÐ € Ð  ÐSlaveryà ˜ à161Ð H ˜  Ðà  àFogel€and€Engerman's€Mistakenly€Low€Figures€on€MarriageÐ `  Ðà  àà Ð àBreakupàÐ ƒ­.  à164Ð Ø(  Ðà  àHow€the€Slaves'€Fears€about€Family€Breakup€Could€Make€ForÐ  ð  Ðà  àà Ð àContinual€AnxietyàÐ ƒ­.ÈÈ%à165Ð h¸  Ðà  àThe€Process€of€Being€Bought€and€Sold€as€Itself€DehumanizingÐ 0€  Ðà  à166Ð øH  Ðà  àHow€Slavery€Undermined€the€Families€of€SlavesàÐ ƒ­.  ?à166Ð À Ðà  àHow€Slavery€Weakened€the€Father's€RoleàÐ ƒ­.ØØ8à167Ð ˆØ Ðà  àFactors€Which€Encouraged€Slaves€to€Treat€Marriage€Bonds€Ð P  Ðà  àà Ð àCasuallyàÐ ƒ­. à170Ð h Ðà  àHow€Slavery€Encouraged€a€Casual€Approach€to€FamilyÐ à0 Ðà  àà Ð àRelationshipsàÐ ƒ­.è è !à171Ð ¨ø Ðà  àThe€Ways€Slavery€Destroyed€Family€RelationshipsàÐ ƒ­.Aà173Ð pÀ Ðà  àHow€the€Master€Could€Routinely€Interfere€in€Slave€Family€Ð 8ˆ Ðà  àà Ð àRelationshipsàÐ ƒ­.è è !à174Ð P Ðà  àMaster„Arranged€MarriagesàÐ ƒ­.ÀÀ+à175Ð È Ðà  àJust€How€Common€Was€Miscegenation?àÐ ƒ­.øø4à176Ð à Ðà  àDespite€the€Pressures,€Slaves€Still€Maintained€Some€Form€of€Ð X¨ Ðà  àà Ð àFamily€LifeàÐ ƒ­.ø ø à178Ð  p Ðà  àThe€Key€Issues€Involved€in€Examining€the€Quality€of€Farm„Ð è8 Ðà  àà Ð àworker€Family€LifeàÐ ƒ­.@@&à179Ð °  Ðà  àThe€"Weber/Gillis"€Thesis€Summarized:€€Was€Brutish€FamilyÐ xÈ! Ðà  àà Ð àLife€the€Norm?àÐ ƒ­.``"à180Ð @" Ðà  àThe€Limits€to€Snell's€Rebuttal€Against€Seeing€Lower€Class€Ð  X# Ðà  àà Ð àFamily€Life€as€HarshàÐ ƒ­.00(à182Ð Ð $ Ðà  àHow€Not€Being€Independent€and€Self„Sufficient€Could€ImproveÐ ˜!è% Ðà  àà Ð àFamily€LifeàÐ ƒ­.ø ø à184Ð `"°& Ðà  àThe€Limits€to€Applying€the€Gillis„Weber€Thesis€to€theÐ (#x' Ðà  àà Ð àEnglish€CaseàÐ ƒ­.p p à186Ð ð#@( Ðà  àSome€Evidence€Bearing€on€the€Quality€of€Farmworkers'€FamilyÐ ¸$ ) Ðà  àà Ð àLifeàÐ ƒ­.° ° à187Ð €%Ð * Ðà  àWhy€the€Slave€Family€was€Fundamentally€Worse€Off€than€theÐ H&˜!+ Ðà  àà Ð àLaborer€FamilyàÐ ƒ­.``"à189Ð '`", Ðà  àWhy€the€Laborers€Had€a€Higher€Overall€Quality€of€Life€than€Ð Ø'(#- Ðà  àà Ð àthe€SlavesàÐ ƒ­.€ € à190Ð  (ð#. 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Ðà  à215Ð @" Ðà  àFinishing€Work€for€the€Day--Some€VariationsàÐ ƒ­.00=à217Ð  X# Ðà  àHours€of€Work--Agricultural€WorkersàÐ ƒ­.pp5à218Ð Ð $ Ðà  àWere€Workdays€Shorter€for€the€Farmworkers€than€the€Slaves?Ð ˜!è% Ðà  à219Ð `"°& Ðà  àThe€Length€of€the€Workweek€and€Days€off--SlavesàÐ ƒ­.Aà221Ð (#x' Ðà  àSlaves€Normally€Did€Not€Work€on€SundaysàÐ ƒ­.PP9à221Ð ð#@( Ðà  àHolidays€the€Slaves€Did€Not€Work€OnàÐ ƒ­.pp5à223Ð ¸$ ) Ðà  àUnplanned€Days€Off€Due€to€Weather€or€the€State€of€CropsÐ €%Ð * Ðà  à224Ð H&˜!+ Ðà  àThe€Days€of€Work€for€Agricultural€WorkersàÐ ƒ­.@@;à225Ð '`", Ðà  àThose€Laborers€Who€Had€to€Work€Sundays,€and€Those€Who€DidÐ Ø'(#- ÐNotà  à226Ð  (ð#. 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Ðà  àà Ð àFarmworkersàÐ  à.ø ø à309Ð h)¸$/ Ðà  àDid€Some€in€the€Elite€Begin€to€Repudiate€Paternalistic,€Ð 0*€%0 Ðà  àà Ð àCommunal€Values?àÐ  à.PP$à309Ð ø*H&1 Ðà  àHow€the€Rural€Elite€Tried€to€Have€Paternalism€and€CapitalismÐ À+'2 Ðà  àà Ð àSimultaneouslyàÐ  à.``"à310Ð ˆ,Ø'3 Ðà  àPaternalism€Vs.€Capitalism:€€The€Trade„Offs€between€FreedomÐ ° Ðà  àà Ð àand€SecurityàÐ  à.p p à311Ð xÈ Ðà  àHow€the€Waning€of€Paternalism€Made€the€Laborers'€ClassÐ @ Ðà  àà Ð àConsciousness€PossibleàÐ  à.  *à313Ð X Ðà  àThe€Power€of€Gifts€to€Control,€and€When€They€Do€NotàÐ  à.ððEà313Ð Ð  Ðà  àThe€Failure€of€Paternalism€as€an€Ideological€Control€DeviceÐ ˜è Ðà  àà Ð àfrom€C.€1795àÐ  à.p p à314Ð ` ° Ðà  àThe€Laborers'€Growing€Class€Consciousness,€C.€1834€to€1850Ð ( x Ðà  à315Ð ð @ Ðà  àWhen€the€Laborers€as€a€Class€in€Itself€Began€to€Act€forÐ ¸   Ðà  àà Ð àItselfàÐ  à.    à317Ð € Ð  Ðà  àA€Comparison€of€Respective€Elite€Control€Strategies:€€Slave„Ð H ˜  Ðà  àà Ð àowners€and€SquiresàÐ  à.@@&à318Ð `  Ðà  àHow€Much€Success€Did€These€Two€Elites€Have€at€Hegemony?Ð Ø(  Ðà  à322Ð  ð  Ðà  àÌ6.€€ON€RESISTANCE€BY€A€SUBORDINATE€CLASSàÐ  à.pp4à325Ð 0€  ÐÌà  àThe€Infrapolitics€of€Daily€LifeàÐ  à.1à325Ð À Ðà  àAnalytical€Problems€with€"Day„to„Day€Resistance"Ð ˆØ Ðà  àà Ð à(Infrapolitics)àÐ  à.ØØ#à325Ð P  Ðà  àThe€Continuum€of€Resistance€from€Infrapolitics€to€OrganizedÐ h Ðà  àà Ð àInsurrectionàÐ  à.p p à326Ð à0 Ðà  àThe€Need€for€a€Subordinate€Class€to€Wear€a€Mask€to€ConcealÐ ¨ø Ðà  àà Ð àTheir€KnowledgeàÐ  à.ØØ#à328Ð pÀ Ðà  àEarly€Training€in€Mask€WearingàÐ  à.0à329Ð 8ˆ Ðà  àThe€Costs€of€Being€Open€and€the€Mask€Falling€OffàÐ  à.ˆˆBà330Ð P Ðà  àThe€Subordinate€Class's€Compulsions€to€LieàÐ  à.¸¸<à330Ð È Ðà  àWhy€the€Rituals€of€Deference€Still€Had€MeaningàÐ  à.˜˜@à332Ð à Ðà  àElkins's€"Sambo"€Hypothesis€and€Its€ProblemsàÐ  à.¨¨>à333Ð X¨ Ðà  àAn€Act€of€Routine€Resistance:€€StealingàÐ  à.PP9à338Ð  p Ðà  àVarious€Motives€for€TheftàÐ  à.ÀÀ+à338Ð è8 Ðà  àThe€Intrinsic€Costs€of€Double„Standards€in€MoralityàÐ  à.ððEà339Ð °  Ðà  àEvading€Work€by€Claiming€SicknessàÐ  à.€€3à341Ð xÈ! Ðà  àWork:€€Slowdowns€and€CarelessnessàÐ  à.€€3à342Ð @" Ðà  àThe€Strategy€of€Playing€the€White€Folks€Off€Against€EachÐ  X# Ðà  àà Ð àOtheràÐ  à.( ( à343Ð Ð $ Ðà  àManipulating€White€Authority€for€the€Slaves'€Own€PurposesÐ ˜!è% Ðà  à343Ð `"°& Ðà  àHow€Pleadings€and€Petitions€Could€Restrain€Masters€andÐ (#x' Ðà  àà Ð àMistressesàÐ  à.€ € à343Ð ð#@( Ðà  àThe€General€Problem€of€Slaves€Running€AwayàÐ  à.¸¸<à344Ð ¸$ ) Ðà  àTemporary€and€Local€FlightàÐ  à.88,à346Ð €%Ð * Ðà  à"Negotiating"€a€ReturnàÐ  à.XX(à347Ð H&˜!+ Ðà  àHow€Runaways€Could€Resist€CaptureàÐ  à.€€3à348Ð '`", Ðà  àMaroons:€€Settlements€of€Escaped€SlavesàÐ  à.PP9à349Ð Ø'(#- Ðà  àThe€Most€Successful€RunawaysàÐ  à.((.à350Ð  (ð#. Ðà  à"Strikes"€Conducted€by€Groups€of€Slaves€Running€AwayàÐ  à.hhFà352Ð h)¸$/ Ðà  àSmall€Scale€Open€Confrontations€and€ViolenceàÐ  à.¨¨>à353Ð 0*€%0 Ðà  à"Nats"€or€"Sambos"?--Selective€Perception€by€the€MasterÐ ø*H&1 ÐClassà Ð à355Ð À+'2 Ðà  àThe€Rarity€of€Slave€Revolts€in€the€United€States€ComparedÐ ˆ,Ø'3 Ðà  àà Ð àto€ElsewhereàÐ  à.p p à356Ð ° Ðà  àThe€Factors€Militating€Against€Slave€Revolts€in€the€UnitedÐ xÈ Ðà  àà Ð àStatesàÐ  à.    à357Ð @ Ðà  àMany€Slaves€Knew€How€Much€the€Deck€Was€Stacked€AgainstÐ X Ðà  àà Ð àSuccessful€RevoltàÐ  à.ÈÈ%à359Ð Ð  Ðà  àWhy€then,€If€Revolts€Were€So€Rare,€Were€the€Whites€SoÐ ˜è Ðà  àà Ð àParanoid?àÐ  à.  à360Ð ` ° Ðà  àResistance€to€Slavery€in€the€United€States€Is€Dominated€by€Ð ( x Ðà  àà Ð àInfrapoliticsàÐ  à.è è !à362Ð ð @ Ðà  àResident€Slaveholders€Supervising€Small€Units€of€ProductionÐ ¸   Ðà  àà Ð àSmother€ResistanceàÐ  à.@@&à363Ð € Ð  Ðà  àResisting€Enslavement€Is€Not€the€Same€as€Resisting€Slavery€Ð H ˜  Ðà  àà Ð àas€a€Social€SystemàÐ  à.@@&à364Ð `  Ðà  àHodge:€€The€Predominance€of€Daily€Infrapolitics€OverÐ Ø(  ÐOutrightÐ  ð  Ðà  àà Ð àRiotsàÐ  à.( ( à366Ð h¸  Ðà  àSocial€Crime--The€Infrapolitics€of€PoachingàÐ  à.00=à367Ð 0€  Ðà  àThe€Laborers'€Counter„Ideology€Against€the€Elite's€Game€LawsÐ øH  Ðà  à368Ð À Ðà  àThe€Role€of€Theft,€More€Generally€Defined,€in€EnglishÐ ˆØ Ðà  àà Ð àRural€InfrapoliticsàÐ  à.¸¸'à369Ð P  Ðà  àThe€Correlation€between€Poverty€and€TheftàÐ  à.@@;à370Ð h Ðà  àHodge's€Thinner€MaskàÐ  à.hh&à370Ð à0 Ðà  àHow€Farmworkers€Could€"Run€Away"--Resistance€Through€Migra„Ð ¨ø Ðà  àà Ð àtionàÐ  à.° ° à372Ð pÀ Ðà  àThe€Reluctance€of€Laborers€to€Move€and€Other€Obstacles€toÐ 8ˆ Ðà  àà Ð àMigrationàÐ  à.  à373Ð P Ðà  àThe€Tamer€Confrontations€between€Hodge€and€His€MastersàÐ  à.X X Hà375Ð È Ðà  àFood€Riots€as€a€Method€of€ResistanceàÐ  à.èè6à376Ð à Ðà  àThe€Swing€Riots€Generally€ConsideredàÐ  à.èè6à378Ð X¨ Ðà  àHow€the€Laborers€Did€Benefit€Some€from€the€Swing€RiotsàÐ  à.X X Hà379Ð  p Ðà  àThe€Relative€Weakness€of€the€Farmworkers'€Unions€ComparedÐ è8 Ðà  àà Ð àto€Others€in€EnglandàÐ  à.00(à380Ð °  Ðà  àThe€Organization€of€the€Agricultural€Labours'€Union€in€1872Ð xÈ! Ðà  à381Ð @" Ðà  àComparing€Two€Subordinate€Classes'€Methods€of€ResistanceÐ  X# Ðà  à383Ð Ð $ ÐÌ7.€€CONCLUSIONS:€€THE€BALANCE€BETWEEN€"RESISTANCE"€AND€"DAMAGE"?Ð `"°& Ðà  à386Ð (#x' Ðà  àÌà  àResistance€and€the€Subordinate€Class's€Quality€of€LifeàÐ  à.X X Hà386Ð ¸$ ) Ðà  àSlavery€Is€on€a€Continuum€of€Social€Systems€of€SubordinationÐ €%Ð * Ðà  à388Ð H&˜!+ Ðà  àSelected€BibliographyàÐ .ä .àà'à390Ð '`", ÐÌÌÌÌÌÌÐ ˆ,Ø'3 ЇÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÓB+° ` ¸ hÀpÈ xÐ (#°‚ÈÐ BÓ1.€€WHY€COMPARE€ENGLISH€LABORERS€AND€AMERICAN€SLAVES€TO€BEGINÐ P  ÐWITH?Ð h ÐÌà@((ìàòòThe€Standard€Yet€Problematic€Comparison€of€Factory€Workers€withˆÐ ¨ø ÐSlavesóóÐ pÀ ÐÌ€€€€€Mississippi€slaveowner€and€politician€John€A.€QuitmanÐ P Ð"professed€little€respect€for€the€northern€free„labor€system,Ð È Ðwhere€'factory€wretches'€worked€eleven„hour€days€in€'fetid'Ð à Ðconditions€while€their€intellects€were€destroyed€'watching€theÐ X¨ Ðinterminable€whirling€of€the€spinning„jenny.'...€€The€QuitmanÐ  p Ðplantations€functioned€satisfactorily,€and€his€bondsmen€wereÐ è8 Ðappreciative€of€their€condition.€€He€described€his€slaves€asÐ °  Ð'faithful,€obedient,€and€affectionate.'"€€Quitman's€comparison€isÐ xÈ! Ðstill€made€today€when€debates€break€out€over€the€standard€ofÐ @" Ðliving€about€who€was€better€off:€€slaves€versus€[Northern]Ð  X# Ðòòfactory€workersóó,€not€farm€servants.€€Similarly,€while€examiningÐ Ð $ Ðgeneral€European€conditions€for€workers,€Jurgen€Kuczynski€states:€Ð ˜!è% Ð"It€is€precisely€these€bad€conditions€which€justify€the€argumentsÐ `"°& Ðof€the€slaveowners€of€the€South,€that€the€slaves€are€materiallyÐ (#x' Ðbetter€off€than€the€workers€in€the€north.€€This€would€in€manyÐ ð#@( Ðcases€have€been€true."€€Despite€its€frequency,€this€comparison€isÐ ¸$ ) Ðactually€problematic:€€It€discounts€the€additional€effects€ofÐ €%Ð * Ðurbanization,€crowding,€and€doing€industrial/shop€work€inside.€Ð H&˜!+ ÐIn€the€countryside,€with€its€low€population€density€and€work€inÐ '`", Ðthe€fields€outside,€people€experience€a€different€way€and€qualityÐ Ø'(#- Ðof€life.€€The€conditions€of€urban€factory€life€simply€are€notÐ  (ð#. Ðtied€to€the€legal€status€of€being€free€or€slave.€€This€commonÐ h)¸$/ Ðcomparison€actually€contrasts€two€very€different€ways€of€life,Ð 0*€%0 Ðurban€versus€rural,€factory€versus€farm,€to€which€widely€varyingÐ ø*H&1 Ðvalue€judgments€can€be€attached.€€As€E.€P.€Thompson€observes:€Ð À+'2 Ð"In€comparing€a€Suffolk€[farm]€labourer€with€his€grand„daughterÐ ˆ,Ø'3 Ðin€a€cotton„mill€we€are€comparing--not€two€standards€[ofÐ ° Ðliving]--but€two€ways€of€life."׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€By€likening€some€otherÐ xÈ Ðagricultural€labor€force€to€the€slaves€of€the€American€SouthÐ @ Ðbefore€the€Civil€War,€many€of€the€apples/oranges€comparisonÐ X Ðproblems€are€eliminated.€€This€work€shows€the€largely€landlessÐ Ð  ÐEnglish€agricultural€workers€during€the€general€period€of€theÐ ˜è Ðindustrial€revolution€(c.€1750„1875)€had€a€superior€quality€ofÐ ` ° Ðlife€of€compared€to€the€black€slaves€in€the€American€South€(c.Ð ( x Ð1750„1865),€but€that€the€latter€at€times€had€a€material€standardÐ ð @ Ðof€living€equal€to€or€greater€than€the€former's,€at€least€inÐ ¸   Ðsouthern€England.Ð € Ð  ÐÌòòà@'ìàWhy€Do€Such€a€Comparison?óóˆÐ `  ÐÌà  àA€historical€comparison€brings€into€focus€features€of€bothÐ  ð  Ðsubjects€under€study€that€might€otherwise€go€unnoticed.€€NewÐ h¸  Ðinsights€may€be€gained,€which€might€be€missed€when€highlyÐ 0€  Ðspecialized€historians€devoted€to€a€particular€field€analyzeÐ øH  Ðhistorical€phenomena€stay€strictly€within€their€area€ofÐ À Ðexpertise.€€Suddenly,€through€historical€comparison€and€contrast,Ð ˆØ Ðthe€pedestrian€can€become€exceptional,€and€what€was€deemedÐ P  Ðunusual€becomes€part€of€a€pattern.€€For€example,€both€theÐ h Ðagricultural€workers€and€the€slaves€found€ways€to€resist€theÐ à0 Ðpowerful€in€their€respective€societies,€but€their€forms€ofÐ ¨ø Ðresistance€differed€since€their€legal€statuses€differed.€€In€theÐ pÀ Ðpreface€of€his€study€of€American€slavery€and€Russian€serfdom,Ð 8ˆ ÐKolchin€observes€some€of€the€advantages€of€doing€such€aÐ P Ðcomparison.€€It€reduces€parochialism€in€given€fields,€allowsÐ È Ðfeatures€to€be€seen€as€significant€that€otherwise€might€beÐ à Ðoverlooked,€makes€for€the€formulation€and€testing€of€hypotheses,Ð X¨ Ðand€helps€to€distinguish€which€variables€and€causal€factors€hadÐ  p Ðmore€weight.׃Ð×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€A€comparative€topic€is€justified,€even€when€itÐ è8 Ðdeals€with€phenomena€long€since€analyzed€by€historians,€if€itÐ °  Ðwrings€new€insights€out€of€the€same€old€sources.€€It€may€exposeÐ xÈ! Ðassumptions€about€events€or€processes€experts€take€for€granted€orÐ @" Ðoverlook€in€the€fields€being€compared.€€One€suspects€sometimesÐ  X# Ðlabor€historians€and€African„American€slavery€historians€may€beÐ Ð $ Ðletting€their€respective€historiographical€work€pass€each€otherÐ ˜!è% Ðlike€ships€in€the€night,€not€knowing€the€valuable€insights€oneÐ ° Ðgroup€may€have€for€the€study€of€the€other's€field.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð xÈ ÐÌà  àComparing€and€contrasting€English€agricultural€workersÐ X Ðduring€the€industrial€revolution€and€American€slaves€before€andÐ Ð  Ðduring€the€Civil€War€allows€for€the€exploration€of€(perhapsÐ ˜è Ðunexpected)€similarities€and€differences€in€their€experiences€inÐ ` ° Ðthe€same€general€time€frame.€€Placing€side€by€side€for€inspectionÐ ( x Ðtwo€agricultural€work€forces€who€lived€at€the€same€basic€time€whoÐ ð @ Ðspoke€the€same€language€seems€"a€natural,"€but€specialists€inÐ ¸   Ðboth€fields€have€largely€overlooked€this€identification.€€TheÐ € Ð  Ðhistory€of€black€slavery€òòisóó€"labor€history."€€On€a€daily€basisÐ H ˜  Ðslaveholders€got€people€to€labor€for€them,€tried€to€motivate€themÐ `  Ðby€fear€and€the€stick,€or,€less€commonly€but€ideally,€by€love€andÐ Ø(  Ðthe€carrot.€€Of€course,€fundamental€differences€remained€betweenÐ  ð  Ðthe€two€work€forces.€€The€blacks€were€not€really€seen€as€part€ofÐ h¸  Ðthe€surrounding€society€for€racial€reasons,€while€the€EnglishÐ 0€  Ðagricultural€workers€still€had€some€real€rights,€despite€theirÐ øH  Ðevident€subordination.€€Excepting€for€children,€farmworkers€wereÐ À Ðnever€subjected€to€the€supreme€indignity€of€being€flogged€whileÐ ˆØ Ðon€the€job,€but€the€whip€was€virtually€the€emblem€of€theÐ P  Ðslaveowner's€authority€over€his€or€her€property.€€Exploring€theÐ h Ðsimilarities€and€differences€between€these€two€work€forces€is€theÐ à0 Ðburden€of€this€work.€€Ð ¨ø ÐÌòòà@44ìàWhat€Exactly€Is€Compared€Out€of€Each€Diverse€GroupóóˆÐ 8ˆ ÐÌà  àThis€work€compares€from€these€groups€those€who€lived€inÐ È Ðrural€areas€and€did€farm€work€as€their€main€or€exclusiveÐ à Ðoccupation.€€Neither€urban€slavery€in€the€American€South€norÐ X¨ Ðslavery€in€the€North€before€its€demise€are€analyzed€here.€Ð  p ÐHowever,€some€source€documents€used€below€involve€slaves€whoÐ è8 Ðeither€may€have€lived€in€a€small€town€or€in€both€city€andÐ °  Ðcountry.€€Artisans€who€lived€in€rural€areas,€such€as€blacksmithsÐ xÈ! Ðand€carpenters,€receive€some€attention€in€the€American€case€butÐ @" Ðalmost€none€in€the€English.€€Servants€are€included,€whetherÐ  X# ÐAmerican€slave€or€English€free,€whether€doing€domestic€chores,Ð Ð $ Ðlearning€husbandry,€or€a€combination€of€the€two,€but€slaveÐ ˜!è% Ðdomestics€receive€much€more€attention€than€English€ones.€€SlavesÐ `"°& Ðworking€in€industry€or€factories€are€omitted,€as€well€as€theirÐ (#x' ÐEnglish€counterparts,€since€this€work€is€about€agricultural/ruralÐ ð#@( Ðworkers.€€Workers€in€English€domestic€industry€are€also€passedÐ ¸$ ) Ðover.€€But€cases€in€which€substantial€machinery€and€millsÐ €%Ð * Ðfunctioned€on€plantations,€such€as€for€rice€and€sugar€refining,Ð H&˜!+ Ðare€covered€since€they€functioned€amidst€a€rural€setting.€€UnlessÐ '`", Ðotherwise€mentioned,€it€should€be€assumed,€as€"Southern€slaves"Ð ° Ðare€compared€with€English€agricultural€workers,€that€the€formerÐ xÈ Ðlive€in€rural€areas€or€perhaps€small€towns,€and€that€they€areÐ @ Ðeither€field€hands€or€servants,€not€urban€and/or€industrialÐ X Ðworkers.€€Since€about€ninety€percent€of€the€slaves€did€not€liveÐ Ð  Ðin€cities,€the€vast€bulk€of€them€lived€in€rural€areas.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€BlacksÐ ˜è Ðwithout€masters--"free€Negroes"--are€not€covered€here.€€The€focusÐ ` ° Ðshall€be€on€ENGLISH€farm€workers,€not€Scottish,€Welsh,€Irish,€orÐ ( x Ð"British."€€Exclusions€and€limits€are€necessary€for€what€isÐ ð @ Ðcompared€here€within€these€two€large,€diverse€groups,€since€moreÐ ¸   Ðcould€always€be€added.Ð € Ð  ÐÌòòà@Œ Œ ìàFive€Broad€Areas€for€Comparison€PurposesóóˆÐ `  ÐÌà  àIn€five€broad€categories€English€farmworkers€and€African„Ð  ð  ÐAmerican€slaves€are€compared.€€The€first€concerns€the€materialÐ h¸  Ðstandard€of€living,€such€as€in€diet,€clothing,€housing,€andÐ 0€  Ðmedical€care.€€The€second€concerns€the€less€quantitative€butÐ øH  Ðessential€"quality€of€life"€issues,€such€as€in€familyÐ À Ðrelationships,€education,€religious€activities,€and€having€anÐ ˆØ Ðinformed€outlook€on€life.€€Although€through€sheer€ignorance€andÐ P  Ðgood€treatment€perhaps€some€slaves€were€relatively€content€withÐ h Ðtheir€lot,€their€satisfaction€does€not€make€their€situation€to€beÐ à0 Ðactually€good.€€It€is€better€to€be€Socrates€dissatisfied€than€aÐ ¨ø Ðpig€satisfied,€a€dictum€which€a€few€quantitative€economicÐ pÀ Ðhistorians€seem€tempted€to€forget.€€Only€those€slaves€with€aÐ 8ˆ Ð"live€for€today"€philosophy,€who€made€themselves€totallyÐ P Ðoblivious€to€the€future,€could€possibly€forget€what€mastersÐ È Ðselling€their€family€members€would€do€to€them.€€Sales€due€toÐ à Ðdeath€or€bankruptcy€were€always€remained€a€sword€of€DamoclesÐ X¨ Ðhanging€over€the€bondsmen.€€Third,€the€sexual€division€of€laborÐ  p Ðbetween€men€and€women€is€compared€for€the€English€farm€workersÐ è8 Ðand€African„American€slaves.€€These€two€groups€had€glaringÐ °  Ðdifferences€in€this€area€which,€perhaps€ironically,€declinedÐ xÈ! Ðsharply€after€freedom€for€the€slaves€came.€€Fourth,€workÐ @" Ðconditions,€labor€discipline,€and€the€ways€the€masters€attemptedÐ  X# Ðto€control€their€respective€subordinate€classes€are€compared,Ð Ð $ Ðincluding€by€and€through€the€state.€€Abuses€at€work€are€dealtÐ ˜!è% Ðwith,€such€as€whipping,€hours€of€work,€holidays/days€off,€and€theÐ `"°& Ðincentives€used€by€"management,"€broadly€considered.€€The€realityÐ (#x' Ðof€paternalism€and€the€quality€of€work€relationships€areÐ ð#@( Ðexamined.€€Fifth,€the€means€by€which€the€subordinate€classesÐ ¸$ ) Ðresisted€the€will€of€the€dominant€class€is€analyzed.€€How€theÐ €%Ð * Ðoppressed€classes€wore€a€"mask"€is€considered€here.€€Both€ofÐ H&˜!+ Ðthese€groups€carefully€concealed,€by€lies,€feigned€ignorance,€orÐ '`", Ðthe€simple€non„volunteering€of€information,€what€they€REALLYÐ Ø'(#- Ðthought€from€their€"betters"€to€avoid€punishment€or€exploitation.€Ð  (ð#. ÐThe€infrequent,€but€spectacular,€cases€of€revolts€and€massÐ h)¸$/ Ðactions€are€covered,€as€well€as€union€activities€among€theÐ ° Ðagricultural€workers.€€Using€the€broad€categories€of€the€materialÐ xÈ Ðstandard€of€living,€the€quality€of€life,€the€sexual€division€ofÐ @ Ðlabor,€work€conditions€and€controls,€and€resistance€against€thoseÐ X Ðin€authority€and€their€controls,€the€most€important€similaritiesÐ Ð  Ðand€contrasts€between€these€two€work€forces€are€focused€upon.Ð ˜è ÐÌà  àThis€comparison€uses€the€general€time€period€of€1750„1875.€Ð ( x ÐMaking€for€the€drawing€of€sharper€parallels,€these€dates€allowÐ ð @ Ðtwo€largely€contemporary€work€forces€to€be€compared€who€bothÐ ¸   Ðlived€in€industrializing€nations€and€spoke€the€same€language.€Ð € Ð  ÐThe€nineteenth€century€is€emphasized,€partly€due€to€greaterÐ H ˜  Ðdocumentation,€but€also€because€then€the€factors€creating€theseÐ `  Ðtwo€work€forces'€conditions€peaked.€€The€proletarianization€ofÐ Ø(  Ðthe€farmworkers€reached€a€height€in€the€first€half€of€theÐ  ð  Ðnineteenth€century,€before€allotments€spread€more€widely,Ð h¸  Ðmechanization€became€common,€and€out„migration€had€partiallyÐ 0€  Ðemptied€the€English€countryside.€€Similarly,€after€generallyÐ øH  Ðexperiencing€a€boom€in€the€preceding€thirty€years,€the€CottonÐ À ÐKingdom€clearly€reached€an€economic€high€point€in€1860.€€ThisÐ ˆØ Ðwork€emphasizes€portraying€the€respective€climaxes€of€the€twoÐ P  Ðwork€forces'€conditions€as€determined€by€events€and€processesÐ h Ðthat€began€in€the€seventeenth€and€early€eighteenth€centuries,Ð à0 Ðsuch€as€the€initial€arrival€of€slaves€in€the€English€colonies€andÐ ¨ø Ðthe€second€general€wave€(i.e.,€post„Tudor)€enclosure€acts.€Ð pÀ ÐChanges€from€earlier€conditions€(pre„1750)€are€treated€largely€inÐ 8ˆ Ðpassing,€which€makes€the€conditions€of€the€slaves€look€better,Ð P Ðdue€to€the€improvements€in€their€treatment€from€the€earlyÐ È Ðcolonial€period,€while€these€make€the€agricultural€workersÐ à Ðapppear€worse€off,€because€of€the€negative€effects€enclosure€andÐ X¨ Ðthe€French€Wars€had€on€their€standard€of€living€compared€to€(say)Ð  p Ð1725.Ð è8 ÐÌà  àBoth€work€forces€lived€in€industrializing€countries.€€TheÐ xÈ! ÐSouth's€industrial€sector€before€the€Civil€War€that€could€employÐ @" Ðthe€slaves€paled€before€what€was€available€to€rural€EnglishÐ  X# Ðworkers.€€Nevertheless,€they€still€resided€in€the€nation€thatÐ Ð $ Ðwas,€by€the€eve€of€the€Civil€War,€the€world's€second€greatestÐ ˜!è% Ðindustrial€power.€€The€North's€industrial€sector€clearly€affectedÐ `"°& Ðthem.€€Often€Northern€factories€made€the€clothes€and€shoes€theyÐ (#x' Ðwore,€and€the€tools€and€machines€they€worked€with.€€CorrespondingÐ ð#@( Ðwith€the€period€of€England's€industrialization,€the€enclosureÐ ¸$ ) Ðacts€affected€the€laborers€largely€negatively.€€They€greatlyÐ €%Ð * Ðreduced€the€independence€and€social€mobility€the€farmworkers€hadÐ H&˜!+ Ðhad.€€If€they€were€willing€to€migrate,€industry€gave€them€anÐ '`", Ðoutlet€from€bad€rural€conditions.€€It€even€provided€someÐ Ø'(#- Ðcompetition€for€their€labor€that€raised€their€wages€when€theyÐ  (ð#. Ðstayed€put,€at€least€in€northern€England.€€Importantly,€a€majorÐ h)¸$/ Ðchronological€difference€separates€the€two€groups:€€FreedomÐ 0*€%0 Ðabruptly€came€to€the€slaves€in€1865,€but€the€improvements€andÐ ø*H&1 Ðchanges€in€the€farmworkers'€conditions€were€gradual,€without€anyÐ À+'2 Ðradical€discontinuity.€€Perhaps€the€farmworkers'€gaining€the€voteÐ ˆ,Ø'3 Ðin€1884€was€the€one€event€that€changed€their€lives€the€most,€forÐ ° Ðalthough€the€Swing€Riots€of€1830„31€badly€shook€the€BritishÐ xÈ Ðestablishment,€their€effects€on€their€lives€were€a€pittanceÐ @ Ðbefore€the€effects€of€emancipation€on€American€blacks.׃ ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€TheÐ X Ðmechanization€of€English€agriculture€was€a€long,€slow€process,Ð Ð  Ðundoubtedly€hindered€early€in€the€nineteenth€century€by€theÐ ˜è Ðmassive€labor€surplus€that€prevailed€in€much€of€the€EnglishÐ ` ° Ðcountryside,€and€even€by€"Captain€Swing"€himself.€€Hence,€someÐ ( x Ðsources€about€post„1875€conditions€are€cited€for€the€EnglishÐ ð @ Ðcase,€since€their€conditions€changed€more€slowly,€but€post„1865Ð ¸   Ðconditions€are€mostly€ignored€for€the€freedmen,€although€racialÐ € Ð  Ðsubordination€continued€by€means€other€than€bondage.Ð H ˜  ÐÌ2.€€A€HISTORICAL€PERENNIAL:€€THE€STANDARD€OF€LIVING€DEBATEÐ Ø(  ÐÌòòSome€Theoretical€Problems€in€Comparing€Slaves€and€Laborers'Ð h¸  ÐStandard€of€LivingóóÐ 0€  ÐÌà  à€The€debate€over€standard€of€living€duringÐ À Ðindustrialization,€and€the€role€of€capitalism€in€lowering€orÐ ˆØ Ðraising€the€masses'€consumption€and€use€of€various€materialÐ P  Ðgoods,€is€one€of€historiography's€greatest€footballs.€€òòThe€LongÐ h ÐDebate€on€Povertyóó׃ è×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€has€an€aptly€chosen€title!€€Unfortunately,€forÐ à0 Ðboth€Southern€slaves€and€English€farmworkers,€no€solid€nationwideÐ ¨ø Ðstatistical€economic€data€exists€that€could€decisively€settle€theÐ pÀ Ðissue.€€The€English€(and€Welsh)€had€no€fully€inclusive€censusÐ 8ˆ Ðuntil€1801,€no€occupational€census€until€1841,€and€no€officialÐ P Ðregistration€for€deaths€and€births€until€1839.׃ ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€American€censusÐ È Ðdata€begins€with€1790,€but€a€mere€count€of€people,€crops€grown€inÐ à Ða€given€year,€and€their€occupations€is€not€enough€to€calculateÐ X¨ Ðper€capita€income.׃ H ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Furthermore,€what€the€average€slave€receivedÐ  p Ðhardly€equaled€what€the€American€did!€€To€run€such€calculations,Ð ° Ðit€is€necessary€to€know€what€the€slaves€alone€got.€€The€availableÐ xÈ Ðhistorical€evidence,€such€as€it€is,€can€give€clues€andÐ @ Ðindications€of€what€the€actual€standard€of€living€was.€€But,€atÐ X Ðthis€late€date,€nothing€with€full€rational€certainty€capable€ofÐ Ð  Ðconvincing€all€the€disputants€involved€is€likely€to€turn€up.€Ð ˜è ÐAnecdotal€evidence€is€valuable,€because€it€can€descriptivelyÐ ` ° Ðexpose€the€relationships€within€an€society€that€an€overemphasisÐ ( x Ðon€quantitative€data€can€obscure.€€But€it€cannot€totally€settleÐ ð @ Ðthis€debate,€since€conflicting€stories€appear€to€support€bothÐ ¸   Ðsides,€such€as€how€kindly€or€harshly€the€"typical"€master€treatedÐ € Ð  Ðthe€"average"€slave.€€This€point€leads€to€the€next€big€problem€inÐ H ˜  Ðthe€standard€of€living€controversy...Ð `  ÐÌà  àJust€what€exactly€IS€the€"average"€slave€or€the€"typical"Ð  ð  Ðagricultural€worker?€€These€abstractions€represent€groups€thatÐ h¸  Ðexperienced€a€great€variety€of€working€conditions,€climates,Ð 0€  Ðlifestyles,€occupations,€family€statuses,€and€mastersÐ øH  Ðsupervising.€€What€is€"average"€for€slaves€when€comparing€theÐ À Ðrelatively€mild€bondage€of€the€Border€States,€such€as€VirginiaÐ ˆØ Ðand€Kentucky,€with€the€harshness€of€the€frontier€Deep€South,€suchÐ P  Ðas€Texas€and€Arkansas?€€What€is€"average"€for€agriculturalÐ h Ðworkers€between€Northumberland,€where€one€observer€said€the€wagesÐ à0 Ðand€the€standard€of€living€surpassed€America's€for€farmworkers,Ð ¨ø Ðas€opposed€to€the€utter€misery€of€notoriously€low„waged€WiltshireÐ pÀ Ðin€southern€England?׃ ˜×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Theoretically,€after€warming€up€theÐ 8ˆ Ðcomputers€armed€with€spreadsheet€programs,€adding€the€twoÐ P Ðtogether€and€dividing,€the€issue€would€be€settled,€if€accurate,Ð È Ðbroad„based,€quantitative€statistics€did€exist€(but€they€do€not).€Ð à ÐNumber„crunching€can€obscure€the€essential€reality€of€an€unequalÐ X¨ Ðor€extreme€situations€òòwithinóó€the€working€class€or€bondsmen€as€aÐ  p Ðwhole.€€The€economist€who€warned€against€wading€a€river€with€anÐ è8 Ðaverage€depth€of€four€feet€drew€attention€to€a€seriousÐ °  Ðtheoretical€problem€that€pervades€quantitative€analysis€whenÐ ° Ðapplied€to€the€standard€of€living€debate.€€Although€the€"average"Ð xÈ Ðbondsman€or€the€"mean"€farmworker€are€handy€abstractions,€theyÐ @ Ðremain€generalizations.€€It€is€mistaken€to€allow€them€to€obscureÐ X Ðthe€underlying€realities€of€(especially)€regional€diversity€forÐ Ð  Ðthe€farmworkers,€or€the€widely€varying€treatment€meted€out€byÐ ˜è Ðvarious€masters€and€mistresses€to€their€bondsmen.Ð ` ° ÐÌòòà@  ìàDiet€and€the€Standard€of€Living€for€SlavesóóˆÐ ð @ ÐÌà  àThe€essence€of€the€standard€of€living€debate€seems€to€beÐ € Ð  Ðdiet,€and€how€far€the€masses€lived€above€bare€subsistence.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀РH ˜  ÐRelated€issues€include:€€How€much€and€what€kinds€of€"luxuries,"Ð `  Ðsuch€as€sugar,€coffee,€and€tea,€did€the€groups€in€question€enjoy?€Ð Ø(  ÐHow€much€and€what€kinds€of€meat€did€they€have?€€Did€they€eatÐ  ð  Ðwheat,€the€most€expensive€grain,€or€barley,€rye,€oats,€etc.?€€HowÐ h¸  Ðcoarse€was€the€food€they€ate?€€For€the€American€slaves,€as€forÐ 0€  ÐAmerican€Southerners€generally,€the€main€grain€was€corn€(maize),Ð øH  Ðand€the€main€meat,€pork.׃˜×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€absolutely€archetypal€rationsÐ À Ðslaves€received€consisted€of€so€many€pecks€of€corn€and€pounds€ofÐ ˆØ Ðpork€or€bacon€per€week.€€Anything€adding€to€or€replacing€theseÐ P  Ðitems€as€basic€foodstuffs€was€at€least€mildly€unusual.€€AsÐ h Ðescaped€slave€Christopher€Nichols€testified€to€Drew:€€"My€masterÐ à0 Ðused€to€allow€us€one€piece€of€meat€a€day,€and€a€peck€and€a€halfÐ ¨ø Ðof€corn€meal€a€week."€€After€being€sold€for€$1,200€in€Natchez,Ð pÀ ÐEli€Johnson€was€"put€on€a€cotton€farm,€and€allowed€a€peck€of€cornÐ 8ˆ Ða€week€and€three€pounds€meat."€€Traveler€Frederick€Law€OlmstedÐ P Ðinquired€of€one€white€Southerner:€€"'What€do€they€generally€giveÐ È Ðthe€niggers€on€the€plantations€here?'€€'A€peck€of€meal€and€threeÐ ° Ðpound€of€bacon€is€what€they€call€'lowance,€in€general,€I€believe.€Ð xÈ ÐIt€takes€a€heap€o'€meat€on€a€big€plantation.'"€€Aged€ex„slaveÐ @ ÐAndy€Anderson€painfully€recalled€that€the€new€overseer,Ð X ÐDelbridge,€cut€rations€as€the€Civil€War€began:€€"He€weighs€outÐ Ð  Ðthe€meat,€three€pound€for€the€week,€and€he€measure€a€peck€ofÐ ˜è Ðmeal."€€The€"meat"€in€question€was€normally€from€the€flesh€ofÐ ` ° Ðhogs,€although€exceptions€appeared.€€Once€a€slave€in€easternÐ ( x ÐMaryland,€Frederick€Douglass€mentioned€how€the€standard€monthlyÐ ð @ Ðrations€included€fish€sometimes:€€"The€men€and€women€slavesÐ ¸   Ðreceived,€as€their€monthly€allowance€of€food,€eight€pounds€ofÐ € Ð  Ðpork,€or€its€equivalent€in€fish,€and€one€bushel€of€corn€meal."€Ð H ˜  ÐCharles€Ball€similarly€described€Calvert€County,€Maryland,€where€Ð `  ÐÌà8  àthe€practice€amongst€slave„holders,€was€to€allow€eachÐ  ð  Ðslave€one€peck€of€corn€weekly,€which€was€measured€outÐ h¸  Ðevery€Monday€morning;€at€the€same€time€each€oneÐ 0€  Ðreceiving€seven€salt€herrings.€€This€formed€the€week'sÐ øH  Ðprovision,€and€the€master€who€did€not€give€it,€wasÐ À Ðcalled€a€òòhard€master,óó€whilst€those€who€allowed€theirÐ ˆØ Ðpeople€any€thing€more,€were€deemed€kind€andÐ P  Ðindulgent.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ÐhÐ Ð  ÐÌHence,€the€normal€bondsman€and€woman€expected€a€diet€thatÐ ¨ø Ðincluded€several€pounds€of€pork€or€bacon€and,€even€moreÐ pÀ Ðcertainly,€corn.׃H ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð 8ˆ Їà  àWere€the€standard€rations€enough?€€Sometimes€they€were€not,Ð ° Ðat€least€for€some€adult€men.€€As€Blassingame€notes:€€"EquallyÐ xÈ Ðserious€was€his€[the€slave's]€dependence€on€the€'average'€amountÐ @ Ðof€food€and€clothing€his€master€decided€was€sufficient€for€òòallóóÐ X Ðslaves."€€What€was€sufficient€for€one€man€or€woman€may€beÐ Ð  Ðinsufficient€for€others!׃ ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ex„slave€Anderson€added,€afterÐ ˜è Ðdescribing€his€plantation's€new€standard€rations:€€"And€'twa'n'tÐ ` ° Ðenough.€€He€half„starve€us€niggers,€and€he€want€more€work."€Ð ( x ÐRunaway€slave€Williamson€Pease€ironically€commented€to€Drew€aboutÐ ð @ Ðthe€draught€animals'€superior€treatment:€€"Horses€and€mules€haveÐ ¸   Ðfood€by€them€all€the€time,€but€the€slaves€had€four€pounds€of€fatÐ € Ð  Ðbacon€a€week,€and€a€peck€of€corn€meal,--not€enough€to€last€someÐ H ˜  Ðmen€three€days."€€Francis€Henderson€similarly€commented:€€"OurÐ `  Ðallowance€was€given€weekly--a€peck€of€sifted€corn€meal,€a€dozenÐ Ø(  Ðand€a€half€herrings,€two€and€a€half€pounds€of€pork.€€Some€of€theÐ  ð  Ðboys€would€eat€this€up€in€three€days."׃@×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Underfeeding€almostÐ h¸  Ðinevitably€caused€theft,€as€Pease€and€Henderson€also€observed.€Ð 0€  ÐHarriet€Brent€Jacobs,€alias€Linda€Brent,€described€well€howÐ øH  Ðmiserly€the€rations€could€be€doled€out.€€Her€mistress€wouldÐ À ÐÌà8  àspit€in€all€the€kettles€and€pans€that€had€been€used€forÐ P  Ðcooking.€€She€did€this€to€prevent€the€cook€and€herÐ h Ðchildren€from€eking€out€their€meager€fare€with€theÐ à0 Ðremains€of€gravy€and€other€scrapings.€€The€slaves€couldÐ ¨ø Ðget€nothing€to€eat€except€what€she€chose€to€give€them.€Ð pÀ ÐProvisions€were€weighed€out€by€the€pound€and€ounce,Ð 8ˆ Ðthree€times€a€day.€€I€can€assure€you€she€gave€them€noÐ P Ðchance€to€eat€wheat€bread€from€her€flour€barrel.€€SheÐ È Ðknew€how€many€biscuits€a€quart€of€flour€would€make,€andÐ à Ðexactly€what€size€they€ought€to€be.׃˜×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ÐX¨Ð Ð  ЇSo€according€to€the€slaves'€own€testimony,€the€nearly€universalÐ ° Ð"standard€rations"€were€inadequate€for€many€of€them,€at€least€byÐ xÈ Ðthemselves€without€what€they€could€raise,€hunt,€or€steal€on€theirÐ @ Ðown,€or€what€more€indulgent€masters€might€issue.׃@×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð X Ðà  àÌòòFogel€and€Engerman's€Optimistic€Reconstructions€of€the€Slave€DietóóÐ ˜è ÐÌà  àFogel€and€Engerman€in€òòTime€on€the€Crossóó€argue€that€slavesÐ ( x Ðwere€well€fed:Ð ð @ ÐÌà8  àThe€average€daily€diet€of€slaves€was€quite€substantial.€Ð € Ð  ÐThe€energy€value€of€their€diet€exceeding€that€of€freeÐ H ˜  Ðmen€in€1879€by€more€than€10€percent.€€There€was€noÐ `  Ðdeficiency€in€the€amount€of€meat€allotted€to€slaves.€Ð Ø(  ÐOn€average,€they€consumed€six€ounces€of€meat€per€day,Ð  ð  Ðjust€an€ounce€lower€than€the€average€quantity€consumedÐ h¸  Ðby€the€free€population.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð0€ Ð Ð  ÐÌAlthough€such€data€as€average€heights€and€rapid€population€growthÐ À Ðindicate€American€slaves€were€not€seriously€underfed,€this€resultÐ ˆØ Ðwas€not€entirely€due€to€their€masters€and€mistresses'€efforts.׃ ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀РP  ÐThe€slaves€struggled€to€get€food€on€their€own,€such€as€by€huntingÐ h Ðand€trapping€(both€relatively€productive€in€a€sparselyÐ ° Ðpopulated/frontier€region),€gardening€small€patches€of€land,Ð xÈ Ðpurchasing€food€using€money€they€earned€from€extra€work,€not€toÐ @ Ðmention€stealing.€€The€testimony€cited€above€casts€some€doubt€onÐ X Ðthe€"standard€rations"€of€pork€and€corn€alone€always€being€enoughÐ Ð  Ðto€satisfy€at€least€adult€male€bondsmen.Ð ˜è ÐÌà  àFogel€and€Engerman€clearly€make€many€dubious€assumptions€andÐ ( x Ðcasual€mistakes€while€reconstructing€the€slave€diet,€as€shown€byÐ ð @ ÐRichard€Sutch's€searching€and€intensive€critique€of€their€data.€Ð ¸   ÐTheir€disappearance€method€uses€data€from€only€44€generallyÐ € Ð  Ðbackwoods€counties€out€of€Parker€and€Gallman's€sample€of€413Ð H ˜  Ðcounties'€farm€and€plantation€food€production.€€They€assume€theÐ `  Ðslaves€must€have€eaten€most€of€the€food€produced€on€theÐ Ø(  Ðplantations€in€their€subsample€because€(they€reason)€these€wereÐ  ð  Ðtoo€far€from€significant€urban€markets.€€Their€subsample€of€thisÐ h¸  Ðsample€excluded€farms€and€small€plantations€with€fewer€thanÐ 0€  Ðfifty„one€slaves,€thus€discounting€the€possibility€of€local€salesÐ øH  Ðof€produce€by€the€big€plantations€to€neighboring€farms€and€smallÐ À Ðplantations.€€Indeed,€their€subsample€comes€down€to€just€seventy„Ð ˆØ Ðseven€plantations,€including€less€than€10€percent€of€the€totalÐ P  Ðpopulation€and€1.5€percent€of€the€total€productive€landholdingsÐ h Ðin€the€Parker„Gallman€sample.€€With€such€a€narrow€sample€focusedÐ à0 Ðon€the€largest€plantations,€a€bias€similar€to€U.B.€Phillips'sÐ ¨ø ÐòòAmerican€Negro€Slaveryóó,€distortions€inevitably€appear.€€SinceÐ pÀ Ðplantations€were€commercial€and€non„subsistent€by€nature,€theyÐ 8ˆ Ðsold€produce€for€cash.€€Using€a€subsample€of€them€in€backwoodsÐ P Ðareas€more€than€fifty€wagon€miles€from€urban€areas€would€notÐ È Ðeliminate€the€distortions€caused€by€local€sales€of€produce€or€theÐ à Ðdriving€of€animals€on€the€hoof€to€market.€€The€latter€pointÐ X¨ Ðundermines€Fogel€and€Engerman's€evidence€for€the€slaves€having€aÐ  p Ðhigh€beef€consumption€based€on€their€subsample€since€15€percentÐ è8 Ðof€all€the€cattle€in€it€were€on€four€Texas€farms€in€two€countiesÐ °  Ðwhich€fell€outside€the€fifty„mile€radius.€€But€since€Texas€wasÐ xÈ! Ðnotorious€for€long€distance€cattle€drives€to€market,€it€isÐ @" Ðimplausible€to€think€these€ranches'€slaves€ate€most€of€the€steerÐ  X# Ðraised€on€them!€€They€underestimate€the€resident€whiteÐ Ð $ Ðpopulation's€consumption€in€these€areas,€such€as€by€usingÐ ˜!è% Ðconversion€ratios€(such€as€dressed€to€live€weight)€which€lowerÐ `"°& Ðhow€much€pork€the€slaves€ate€and€raise€how€much€the€whites€ate€inÐ (#x' Ðthe€subsampled€areas.€€Between€all€the€mistakes€and€questionableÐ ð#@( Ðassumptions€Sutch€identifies,€many€of€them€omitted€here,€nobodyÐ ¸$ ) Ðshould€place€much€stock€in€Fogel€and€Engerman's€arguments€for€aÐ €%Ð * Ðvaried€and€nutritious€slave€diet.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ð H&˜!+ ÐÌà  àMuch€of€the€debate€on€the€slave€diet€between€Fogel€andÐ Ø'(#- ÐEngerman€and€their€critics€like€Sutch€surrounds€mineral€andÐ ° Ðvitamin€deficiencies.€€For€example,€was€the€phenomenon€ofÐ xÈ Ðdirt/clay€eating,€which€still€survives€among€Southern€ruralÐ @ Ðblacks€in€the€United€States€today,€due€to€malnutrition?€€AÐ X Ðthiamine€deficiency€could€easily€explain€some€plantations'Ð Ð  Ðoutbreaks€of€sudden€dirt„eating€frenzies.׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Being€high€in€porkÐ ˜è Ðand€maize,€the€classic€slave€diet€clearly€was€tailor„made€forÐ ` ° Ðproducing€pellagra,€just€as€it€did€among€poor€whites.€€Due€to€itsÐ ( x Ðchemically€bound€form,€corn€lacks€niacin€that€the€human€body€canÐ ð @ Ðeasily€use.€€Its€high€content€of€the€amino€acid€leucine€partiallyÐ ¸   Ðeven€interferes€with€the€body's€digestion€of€whatever€niacin€thatÐ € Ð  Ðis€consumed.€€Although€the€body€can€convert€the€amino€acidÐ H ˜  Ðtryptophan€into€niacin€from€crude€protein,€the€low€quality€fatÐ `  Ðpork€slaves€normally€ate€unfortunately€was€a€poor€source€of€it.€Ð Ø(  ÐEven€nowadays,€let€alone€in€antebellum€times,€physicians€hadÐ  ð  Ðdifficulty€diagnosing€pellagra€because€its€symptoms€seem€to€beÐ h¸  Ðlike€other€afflictions;€it€also€manifests€itself€in€the€earlyÐ 0€  Ðstages€in€disparate€ways€in€different€individuals.€€It€normallyÐ øH  Ðdoes€not€develop€along€standard,€classical€lines.€€Nineteenth„Ð À Ðcentury€American€doctors€simply€did€not€know€about€this€disease,Ð ˆØ Ðso€they€would€think€the€bondsmen€under€their€care€had€otherÐ P  Ðdiseases.€€The€description€of€the€"negro€disease"€called€blackÐ h Ðtongue€by€Southern€physicians,€however,€fits€nearly€perfectlyÐ à0 Ðpellagra€in€its€earlier€stages.€€Employing€such€arguments,€KipleÐ ¨ø Ðand€Kiple€suggest€that€pellagra's€symptoms€manifested€themselvesÐ pÀ Ðduring€hard€times€when€planters€cut€back€on€their€rations.€€ItÐ 8ˆ Ðalso€became€operative€in€many€bondsmen€in€an€early,€endemic€formÐ P Ðthat€emerged€during€winter€and€early€spring,€only€to€disappearÐ È Ðagain€due€to€seasonal€fresh€fruits€or€vegetables€entering€theirÐ à Ðdiet.€€Sutch€observes€that€the€standard€ration€falls€way€short€ofÐ X¨ Ðsupplying€enough€niacin.€€It€even€lacks€the€extra€protein€withÐ  p Ðwhich€the€body€could€convert€tryptophan€into€niacin.€€TheÐ è8 Ðunsupplemented€standard€ration€had€other€vitamin€and€mineralÐ °  Ðdeficiencies,€such€as€in€thiamine,€riboflavin,€and€calcium.€€ItÐ xÈ! Ðwas€short€even€in€vitamin€A,€since€the€corn€and€sweet€potatoes€ofÐ @" Ðthe€antebellum€South€were€evidently€normally€white,€not€yellow,Ð  X# Ðin€color.׃` ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Since€the€bondsmen€likely€suffered€from€dietaryÐ Ð $ Ðdeficiencies,€at€least€during€winter€and€early€spring€when€forcedÐ ° Ðto€survive€on€the€easily€stored€items€of€the€standard€rationÐ xÈ Ðand/or€under€harsher€masters€and€mistresses'€more€restrictiveÐ @ Ðdiets,€this€casts€doubt€upon€Fogel€and€Engerman's€rosyÐ X Ðreconstruction.Ð Ð  ÐÌòòà@Ø Ø ìàThe€Slave€Diet€as€Crude,€Coarse,€and€BoringóóˆÐ ` ° ÐÌà  àBesides€being€likely€vitamin€deficient,€the€slave€diet€wasÐ ð @ Ðobviously€crude,€coarse,€and€boring.€€As€Frederick€DouglassÐ ¸   Ðcommented:€€"Not€to€give€a€slave€enough€to€eat,€is€regarded€asÐ € Ð  Ðthe€most€aggravated€development€of€meanness€even€amongÐ H ˜  Ðslaveholders.€€The€rule€is,€no€matter€how€coarse€the€food,€onlyÐ `  Ðlet€there€be€enough€of€it."€€Victoria€McMullen€remembered€herÐ Ø(  Ðslave€grandmother€described€the€average€slave's€diet€this€way:€Ð  ð  Ð"But€the€other€slaves€didn't€git€nothing€but€fat€meat€and€cornÐ h¸  Ðbread€and€molasses.€€And€they€got€tired€of€that€same€old€thing.€Ð 0€  ÐThey€wanted€something€else€sometimes."€€Mary€Reynolds€recalledÐ øH  Ðduring€slavery€days€what€she€was€fed:€€"Mostly€we€ate€pickledÐ À Ðpork€and€corn€bread€and€peas€and€beans€and€'taters.€€They€neverÐ ˆØ Ðwas€as€much€as€we€needed."€€Although€monotonous,€this€diet€showedÐ P  Ðher€master€at€least€gave€more€than€just€the€stereotypical€"hogÐ h Ðand€hoecake"€diet.€€As€Olmsted€observed:€€"The€food€isÐ à0 Ðeverywhere,€however,€coarse,€crude,€and€wanting€in€variety;€òòmuchÐ ¨ø Ðmore€so€than€that€of€our€[Northern]€prison€convictsóó."€€TheÐ pÀ Ðrestricted€food€types€they€received,€the€crude€cooking€equipmentÐ 8ˆ Ðthey€used,€and€the€sharp€time€limits€imposed€by€both€sexesÐ P Ðworking€a€"sunup€to€sundown"€work€day€all€combined€to€produce€aÐ È Ðdreary€diet.€€As€actress€turned€reluctant€mistress€Fanny€KembleÐ à Ðobserved€at€her€husband's€rice€plantation:€€Ð X¨ Ðà8  àÐ Ð Ð  Ðà8  àThey€got€to€the€fields€at€daybreak,€carrying€with€themÐ è8 Ðtheir€allowance€of€food€for€the€day,€which€toward€noon,Ð °  Ðòòand€not€till€then,óó€they€eat,€cooking€it€over€a€fire,Ð xÈ! Ðwhich€they€kindle€as€best€they€can,€where€they€areÐ @" Ðworking.€€Their€second€meal€in€the€day€is€at€night,Ð  X# Ðafter€their€labor€is€over,€having€worked,€at€the€òòveryÐ Ð $ Ðleast,óó€six€hours€without€intermission€of€rest€orÐ ˜!è% Ðrefreshment€since€their€noonday€meal.Ð`"°&Ð Ð  ÐÌSince€the€adults€of€both€sexes€worked€such€long€hours€of€hardÐ ð#@( Ðlabor€in€the€fields,€the€cooking€equipment€consisting€generallyÐ ¸$ ) Ðof€fireplaces€or€open€fires,€and€relatively€few€or€no€metal€pots,Ð €%Ð * Ðforks,€knives,€and€spoons€being€available,€crudely€prepared€mealsÐ H&˜!+ Ðinevitably€followed.€€Solomon€Northrup,€a€free€man€sold€intoÐ '`", Ðslavery,€said€slaves€often€lacked€the€motivation€to€hunt€afterÐ Ø'(#- Ðwork€because€"after€a€long€and€hard€day's€work,€the€weary€slaveÐ ° Ðfeels€little€like€going€to€the€swamp€for€his€supper,€and€half€theÐ xÈ Ðtime€prefers€throwing€himself€on€the€cabin€floor€without€it."€Ð @ ÐLittle€time€remained€for€the€slave€woman,€if€one€appliesÐ X Ðunrealistically€the€contemporary€Victorian€middle€class'€ideologyÐ Ð  Ðof€the€separate€spheres€to€this€situation,€to€spend€long€hoursÐ ˜è Ðbringing€supper's€food€up€to€some€elevated€level€of€gustatoryÐ ` ° Ðdelight.€€John€Brown,€once€a€young€slave€in€southern€Virginia,Ð ( x Ðdescribed€how€simply€slaves€often€prepared€their€food:€€"We€usedÐ ð @ Ðto€make€our€corn€into€hominy,€hoe€and€Johnny„cake,€and€sometimesÐ ¸   Ðparch€it,€and€eat€it€without€any€other€preparation."׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€If€issuedÐ € Ð  Ðunground,€just€grinding/pounding€the€corn€into€something€cookableÐ H ˜  Ðtook€enough€effort€and€time€itself.€€Nevertheless,€the€slaveÐ `  Ðdiet's€fundamental€problem€was€the€lack€of€variety€in€whatÐ Ø(  Ðslaveowners€issued€their€human€chattels€to€begin€with,€not€theÐ  ð  Ðlack€of€time€originating€in€long€days€of€field€work€by€both€sexesÐ h¸  Ðthat€reduced€the€number€of€domestic€chores,€including€cooking,Ð 0€  Ðthat€could€be€done.׃˜×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú24Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð øH  ÐÌà  àSetting€up€communal€facilities€army„style€was€one€partialÐ ˆØ Ðsolution€to€slaves€without€enough€time€to€cook.€€Kemble€mentionedÐ P  Ðthat€one€old€woman€in€a€shed€boiled€and€distributed€the€dailyÐ h Ðallotment€of€rice€and€grits€on€her€husband's€Georgia€rice„islandÐ à0 Ðplantation.€€Francis€Henderson,€who€escaped€from€the€WashingtonÐ ¨ø ÐD.C.€area,€said€slaves€cooked€food€on€their€own,€but€often€lackedÐ pÀ Ðthe€time€to€do€so:€€"In€regard€to€cooking,€sometimes€many€have€toÐ 8ˆ Ðcook€at€one€fire,€and€before€all€could€get€to€the€fire€to€bakeÐ P Ðhoe€cakes,€the€overseer's€horn€would€sound;€then€they€must€go€atÐ È Ðany€rate."€€Frequently€he€had€to€eat€on€the€run€and€could€not€sitÐ à Ðdown€to€eat€due€time€constraints.€€During€harvest,€this€problemÐ X¨ Ðwas€solved€by€cooking€everything€at€the€big€house€"as€the€handsÐ  p Ðare€wanted€more€in€the€field.€€This€was€more€like€people,€and€weÐ è8 Ðliked€it,€for€we€sat€down€then€at€meals."׃ð ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú25Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€But€the€cost€ofÐ °  Ðremoving€this€burden€this€way€was€still€greater€regimentation€andÐ ° Ðfurther€weakening€of€the€slave€family's€role€by€reducing€theirÐ xÈ Ðfreedom€as€part€of€individual€households€to€make€decisions€aboutÐ @ Ðconsumption,€i.e.,€how€dinner€was€cooked.Ð X ÐÌòòà@øøìàDiffering€Diets€for€Slaves€with€Different€PositionsóóˆÐ ˜è ÐÌà  àSince€masters€and€mistresses€were€"respecters€of€men,"€theyÐ ( x Ðtreated€different€slaves--or€groups€of€slaves--differently.׃è×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú26Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€InÐ ð @ Ðparticular,€the€household€servants€and€drivers€and€their€familiesÐ ¸   Ðwere€apt€to€receive€better€material€conditions,€in€exchange€forÐ € Ð  Ð(inevitably)€the€tighter€controls€and€supervision€due€to€being€inÐ H ˜  Ðthe€white€owner's€presence€more.€€(This€is€the€classic€trade„offÐ `  Ðof€a€sincerely€practiced€paternalism).€€The€bleak€picture€ofÐ Ø(  Ðfield€hands€subsisting€on€"hog€and€hominy"€diets€did€not€apply€toÐ  ð  Ðall€their€neighbors€dwelling€in€the€quarters.€€Not€having€just€toÐ h¸  Ðsubsist€on€the€standard€rations,€servants€benefited€from€theÐ 0€  Ðleftovers€of€their€master€and€mistress'€table,€as€KembleÐ øH  Ðobserved.€€Mary€Boykin€Chesnut's€servants€mobbed€her€whileÐ À Ðvisiting€near€her€husband's€father's€plantation,€wanting€her€toÐ ˆØ Ðcome€home.€€Her€cook€said,€when€asked€if€she€lacked€anything:€Ð P  Ð"Lacking€anything?€€I€lack€everything.€€What€is€cornmeal€andÐ h Ðbacon,€milk€and€molasses?€€Would€that€be€all€you€wanted?€€Ain't€IÐ à0 Ðbin€living€and€eating€exactly€as€you€does€all€these€years?€€WhenÐ ¨ø ÐI€cook€fer€you€didn't€I€have€some€of€all?€€Dere€now!"€€HerÐ pÀ Ðcomplaint€was,€in€part,€"Please€come€home,€so€we€could€eat€betterÐ 8ˆ Ðagain!"€€Freedman€Edward€Jenkins€of€Mount€Pleasant,€SouthÐ P ÐCarolina,€told€Armstrong€how€house€servants€gained€from€theirÐ È Ðowner's€meals:€€"What€de€white€folk€had€ter€eat,€de€servan's€hadÐ à Ðalso,€when€de€white€folks€done€eat€dey€fill."€€Although€hisÐ X¨ Ðparents€were€field€hands,€aged€freedman€Tony€WashingtonÐ  p Ðremembered€his€mistress€made€him€"the€waiter„and„pantry"€boy.€Ð è8 ÐThis€job€allowed€him€to€get€extra€food,€including€leftoverÐ °  Ðalcohol,€as€he€nostalgically€remembered:Ð xÈ! ÐÌà8  àDey€[the€visiting€white€gentlemen]€set€down€ergain,€an'Ð  X# ÐMassa€say:€€'Sonny,€bring€de€glasses!'€€I'd€bring€deÐ Ð $ Ðglasses,€an'€de€brandy€from€de€sidebo'ahd.€€Dey€knowÐ ˜!è% Ðhow€ter€treat€dey€liquor€in€de€old€days€an'€nobody€gitÐ `"°& Ðdrunk.€€Co'se,€I€got€er€little€dizzy€once€when€I€drinkÐ (#x' Ðall€dat€de€gen'lemans€lef'€in€dey€glasses--hehÐ ð#@( Ðheh!--but€Missus€say€she€gwine€tell€Massa€ter€whip€meÐ ¸$ ) Ðif'n€I€do€dat€ergain!Ѐ%Ð *Ð Ð  ÐÌSam€Jackson€benefited€from€having€relatives€in€the€right€placesÐ '`", Ðin€"the€big€house."€€€He€enjoyed€reminiscing€about€his€boyhoodÐ ° Ðjob's€perks:€Ð xÈ ÐÌà8  àI€was€de€waitin'„boy€fo'€de€table.€€Don'€you€know,€inÐ X Ðdem€conditions,€I€had€a€sof'€bed€ter€lie€in?€€Yaw€...Ð Ð  Ðdid€I€git€plenty€ter€eat?€€Jus'€guess€I€did.€€DeÐ ˜è Ðwaiter„boy€allays€got€plenty,€an'€when€his€Maw€wasÐ ` ° Ðhouse„woman,€an'€his€Auntie€de€cook,€guess€he€goin'€goÐ ( x Ðhungry?€€Ho!׃×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú27Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ðð @Ð Ð  ÐÌBy€having€family€members€close€to€the€master€or€the€mistress,Ð € Ð  Ðthis€slave€child€avoided€the€customary€lack€of€good€treatmentÐ H ˜  Ð("investment")€most€received€from€their€owners€because€they€wereÐ `  Ðtoo€young€to€work€in€the€fields.Ð Ø(  ÐÌà  àFurther€evidence€of€tiers€within€slave€society€in€theÐ h¸  Ðquarters,€as€reflected€by€differences€in€diet,€comes€fromÐ 0€  Ðarcheological€investigation.€€At€Thomas€Jefferson's€MonticelloÐ øH  Ðestate,€investigators€found€bones€deposited€from€differentÐ À Ðanimals,€domesticated€and€wild,€in€different€parts€of€his€estate.Ð ˆØ ÐAlthough€the€differences€in€bones€buried€between€Building€'o'€andÐ P  Ðthe€storehouse,€both€areas€mainly€for€slaves,€could€be€explainedÐ h Ðby€some€other€mechanism,€apparently€higher€quality€cuts€of€meatÐ à0 Ðwere€eaten€at€the€former€but€not€at€the€latter.€€As€Crader€notes:€Ð ¨ø Ð"Meaty€elements€such€as€lumbar€vertebrae,€the€pelvis,€and€theÐ pÀ Ðfront€and€hind€limbs€also€are€present,€elements€that€virtuallyÐ 8ˆ Ðare€absent€from€the€Storehouse€assemblage."׃ x×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú28Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€DifferencesÐ P Ðbetween€the€secondary€butchery€marks,€caused€by€removing€the€meatÐ È Ðat€the€cooking€stage,€appeared€between€Building€'o'€and€theÐ à Ðstorehouse's€artifacts.€€(Primary€butchery€involves€taking€theÐ X¨ Ðanimal€apart€at€the€joints€after€its€slaughter).€€The€bone€marksÐ  p Ðfound€at€the€site€of€Building€'o'€are€like€those€that€would€beÐ è8 Ðproduced€by€the€way€the€whites€at€the€mansion€ate,€but€areÐ °  Ðcompletely€absent€from€the€Storehouse's€assemblage€of€bones.€€TheÐ xÈ! Ðmaster,€as€well€as€his€evidently€better„off€slaves,€ate€theirÐ @" Ðmeat€as€roasts,€while€the€worse„off€slaves€stewed€their€meat€inÐ  X# Ðpots,€with€the€bones€chopped€up€much€more.׃!Ð×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú29Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€evidence€CraderÐ Ð $ Ðliterally€unearthed€may€indicate€that€Jefferson's€domesticÐ ° Ðservants€consumed€the€big€house's€leftovers€at€their€homes€in€theÐ xÈ Ðquarters,€which€gave€them€a€somewhat€better€diet€than€the€fieldÐ @ Ðhands.׃"@×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú30Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ð X ÐÌòòà@œ œ ìàThe€Slaves'€Role€in€Procuring€Their€Own€FoodóóˆÐ ˜è ÐÌà  àSlaves€could€seek€additional€food,€if€they€were€able€andÐ ( x Ðwilling€to€put€time€into€it€after€a€long€day€working€for€theirÐ ð @ Ðmasters€and€mistresses,€by€hunting,€trapping,€fishing,€andÐ ¸   Ðtending€their€own€plots€of€crops.€€Some€masters€banned€theseÐ € Ð  Ðactivities,€but€the€slaves€might€still€go€secretly€hunting€(atÐ H ˜  Ðleast)€anyway.€€As€freedwoman€Jenny€Proctor€of€AlabamaÐ `  Ðrecollected:€€"Our€master,€he€wouldn't€'low€us€to€go€fishing--heÐ Ø(  Ðsay€that€too€easy€on€a€nigger€and€wouldn't€'low€us€to€hunt€noneÐ  ð  Ðeither--but€sometime€we€slips€off€at€night€and€catch€possums."€€AÐ h¸  Ðstrong€majority€still€permitted€their€slaves€extra€ways€to€getÐ 0€  Ðfood,€showing€a€strongly€different€spirit€from€the€English€ruralÐ øH  Ðelite's€about€almost€anyone€else€hunting€besides€themselves.€Ð À ÐNorthrup€stated€why:€€"No€objections€are€made€to€hunting,Ð ˆØ Ðinasmuch€as€it€dispenses€with€drafts€upon€the€smoke„house,€andÐ P  Ðbecause€every€marauding€coon€that€is€killed€is€so€much€saved€fromÐ h Ðthe€standing€corn."€€After€nearly€tripping€over€a€huge€pile€ofÐ à0 Ðoyster€shells€on€her€husband's€cotton„island€plantation,€KembleÐ ¨ø Ðlater€commented:€€"This€is€a€horrid€nuisance,€which€results€fromÐ pÀ Ðan€indulgence€which€the€people€here€have€and€value€highly;€theÐ 8ˆ Ðwaters€round€the€island€are€prolific€in€shell„fish,€oysters,€andÐ P Ðthe€most€magnificent€prawns€I€ever€saw.€€The€former€are€aÐ È Ðconsiderable€article€of€the€people's€diet,€and€the€shells€areÐ à Ðallowed€to€accumulate."€€The€slaves€also€set€out€somewhatÐ X¨ Ðineffective€traps€for€birds€at€the€upstream€rice„island€estate.€Ð  p ÐA€neighboring€master€shot€and€killed€an€old€man€of€Douglass'Ð è8 Ðmaster€in€Maryland€while€"fishing€for€oysters"€for€the€trivialÐ °  Ðoffense€of€trespassing€on€his€land.€€In€this€way€they€"made€upÐ xÈ! Ðthe€deficiency€of€their€scanty€allowance."€€Hunting€could€be€ofÐ @" Ðcritical€importance€to€the€bondsmen's€diets.€€ArcheologicalÐ  X# Ðevidence€from€the€Hampton€St.€Simons€island€plantation€had€17.6Ð Ð $ Ðpercent€of€the€bones€gathered€from€wild€animals,€while€one€atÐ ˜!è% ÐCannon's€Point€had€an€amazing€89.8€percent€by€number€of€bonesÐ `"°& Ð(44.5€percent€by€estimated€meat€weight)€from€such€fauna.€€TheseÐ ° Ðpercentages€sharply€contrast€with€the€2€percent€or€less€figuresÐ xÈ Ðfrom€Monticello,€the€Hermitage,€and€the€plantation€atÐ @ ÐKingsmill.׃#×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú31Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Hence,€depending€the€environment€and€slaveowners'Ð X Ðprovisions€(or€presumed€lack€thereof),€hunting,€fishing,€etc.Ð Ð  Ðcould€be€just€a€minor€way€to€supplement€the€slaves'€diet,€or€aÐ ˜è Ðmainstay€perhaps€required€for€survival.Ð ` ° ÐÌà  àMany€slaveowners€allowed€their€bondsmen€to€cultivate€smallÐ ð @ Ðpatches€of€land,€similar€to€the€allotments€that€EnglishÐ ¸   Ðagricultural€workers€tended.€€The€slaves€often€benefited€littleÐ € Ð  Ðfrom€them,€because€this€extra€food€was€eventually€obtainable€onlyÐ H ˜  Ðby€working€on€their€gardens€after€having€put€in€a€full€day's€workÐ `  Ðfor€someone€else,€thus€increasing€their€real€workweek.€€As€agedÐ Ø(  Ðex„slave€Mary€Reynolds€of€Louisiana€recalled:€€Ð  ð  ÐÌà8  àSometimes€Massa€let€niggers€have€a€little€patch.€Ð 0€  ÐThey'd€raise€'taters€or€goobers.€€They€liked€to€haveÐ øH  Ðthem€to€help€fill€out€on€the€victuals....€€TheÐ À Ðniggers€had€to€work€the€patches€at€night€and€dig€theÐ ˆØ Ð'taters€and€goobers€at€night.€€Then€if€they€wanted€toÐ P  Ðsell€any€in€town,€they'd€have€to€git€a€pass€to€go.ÐhÐ Ð  ÐÌSome€masters€stopped€their€slaves€from€having€gardens,€as€ex„Ð ¨ø Ðslave€Jenny€Proctor€remembered.€€Although€this€practice€wasÐ pÀ Ðcommon,€Olmsted€noted,€various€planters€prohibited€it€"because€itÐ 8ˆ Ðtempts€them€to€reserve€for€and€to€expend€in€the€night„work€theÐ P Ðstrength€they€want€employed€in€their€service€during€the€day,€andÐ È Ðalso€because€the€produce€thus€obtained€is€made€to€cover€muchÐ à Ðplundering€of€their€master's€crops,€and€of€his€live€stock."€Ð X¨ ÐPlanter€Bennet€Barrow€allowed€his€slaves€to€have€gardens,€butÐ  p Ðstopped€them€from€òòsellingóó€anything€grown€on€their€plots€becauseÐ è8 Ðit€created€a€"spirit€of€trafficing"€which€required€of€them€"meansÐ °  Ðand€time"€they€had€no€right€to€possess.€€Further,€he€added:Ð xÈ! ÐÌà8  àA€negro€would€not€be€content€to€sell€only€What€heÐ  X# Ðraises€or€makes€or€either€corn€(should€he€be€permitted)Ð Ð $ Ðor€poultry,€or€the€like,€but€he€would€sell€a€part€ofÐ ˜!è% Ðhis€allowance€allso,€and€would€be€tempted€to€commitÐ `"°& Ðrobberies€to€obtain€things€to€sell.€€Besides,€he€wouldÐ (#x' Ðnever€go€through€his€work€carefully,€particularly€WhenÐ ð#@( Ðother€engagements€more€interesting€and€pleasing€areÐ ¸$ ) Ðconstantly€passing€through€his€mind,€but€would€be€aptÐ €%Ð * Ðto€slight€his€work.ÐH&˜!+Ð Ð  ÐÌBut€by€allowing€animals€such€as€pigs€and€chickens€to€be€raised€byÐ Ø'(#- Ðtheir€bondsmen,€other€slaveowners€were€more€generous.€€FannyÐ ° ÐKemble€noted€that€the€blacks€of€her€husband's€rice„plantationÐ xÈ Ðcould€raise€as€many€domestic€birds€as€they€wished,€but€no€longerÐ @ Ðhad€permission€to€raise€their€own€pigs.€€Some€slaves€were€free€toÐ X Ðgrow€even€cash€crops€on€their€"allotments."€€Overseer€John€MairsÐ Ð  Ðwrote€to€Mrs.€Sarah€Polk€about€how€much€cotton€her€hands€hadÐ ˜è Ðraised€for€themselves,€which€was€marketed€with€the€rest€of€theÐ ` ° Ðplantation's€output:€€"Youre€servents€crope€of€coten€in€1849€wasÐ ( x Ðabout€8400€lbs€of€sead€coten."׃$×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú32Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Hence,€the€practice€of€givingÐ ð @ Ðplots€of€land€to€slaves€to€raise€some€of€their€own€food€or€cropsÐ ¸   Ðwas€common€in€the€South,€but€slaveowners€many€times€placed€majorÐ € Ð  Ðrestrictions€on€it.Ð H ˜  ÐÌòòà@((ìàVariations€in€What€Food€Different€Slaveowners€Provided€to€TheirˆÐ Ø(  ÐSlavesóóÐ  ð  ÐÌà  àMuch€variation€arose€in€what€food€and€how€much€of€it€slavesÐ 0€  Ðhad€from€master€to€master€and€plantation€to€plantation.€€On€theÐ øH  Ðone€hand,€enough€disturbing€cases€of€slaves€who€rarely€or€neverÐ À Ðgot€any€meat€appear€to€cast€some€doubt€on€the€utter€universalityÐ ˆØ Ðof€the€"standard€rations."€€After€all,€would€Louisiana€have€a€lawÐ P  Ðrequiring€slaves€to€be€fed€(Olmsted€believed)€four€pounds€of€meatÐ h Ða€week€if€slaveowners€were€already€doing€it?€€He€added€also:€Ð à0 Ð"(This€law€is€a€dead€letter,€many€planters€in€the€State€making€noÐ ¨ø Ðregular€provision€of€meat€for€their€force)."€€Frederick€DouglassÐ pÀ Ðnoted€Master€Thomas€Auld€in€Maryland€allowed€him€and€three€fellowÐ 8ˆ Ðslaves€in€his€kitchen€less€than€half€a€bushel€of€cornmeal€a€week,Ð P Ð"and€very€little€else,€either€in€the€shape€of€meat€or€vegetables.€Ð È ÐIt€was€not€enough€for€us€to€subsist€upon."€€Thomas€Hedgebeth,Ð à Ðborn€free€in€North€Carolina,€worked€on€some€farms€there.€€As€heÐ X¨ Ðrecounted€to€Drew:Ð  p ÐÌà8  àI€have€known€that€the€slaves€had€not€a€bite€of€meatÐ °  Ðgiven€them.€€They€had€a€pint€of€corn€meal€unsifted,€forÐ xÈ! Ða€meal,--three€pints€a€day...€€This€is€noÐ @" Ðhearsay--I've€seen€it€through€the€spring,€and€on€untilÐ  X# Ðcrop€time:€€Three€pints€of€meal€a€day€and€the€bran€andÐ Ð $ Ðnothing€else.И!è%Ð Ð  ЀÌAfter€being€beset€by€a€minor€mob€of€children€begging€her€forÐ (#x' Ðmeat,€Kemble€later€wrote€that€at€the€rice€plantation€her€husbandÐ ð#@( Ðowned:€€"Animal€food€is€only€allowed€to€certain€of€the€harderÐ ° Ðworking€men,€hedgers€and€ditchers,€and€to€them€only€occasionally,Ð xÈ Ðand€in€very€moderate€rations."€€A€neighboring€plantation€ownerÐ @ Ðtold€her€somewhat€offhandedly€that€a€meatless€diet€was€a€goodÐ X Ðsocial€control€device:€€"He€says€that€he€considers€the€extremelyÐ Ð  Ðlow€diet€of€the€negroes€one€reason€for€the€absence€of€crimes€of€aÐ ˜è Ðsavage€nature€among€them;€most€of€them€do€not€touch€meat€the€yearÐ ` ° Ðaround."€€John€Brown€remembered€as€a€slave€child€in€VirginiaÐ ( x Ðthat:€€"We€never€had€meat€of€any€kind,€and€our€usual€drink€wasÐ ð @ Ðwater."׃%×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú33Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Contrary€to€what€some€may€think,€this€evidenceÐ ¸   Ðindicates€that€the€corn€in€the€standard€rations€was€moreÐ € Ð  Ð"standard"€than€the€pork!Ð H ˜  ÐÌà  àOther€slaves€enjoyed€a€more€luxurious,€or€at€least€varied,Ð Ø(  Ðdiet.€€For€example,€Thomas€Jefferson's€slaves€had€at€least€aÐ  ð  Ðdiversity€of€meats€in€their€diet.€€They€received€.5€to€1.5€poundsÐ h¸  Ðof€beef,€4€to€8€fish,€and€4€to€4.5€pounds€of€pork€per€month€perÐ 0€  Ðman€or€woman.€€Judging€from€archeological€remains€at€AndrewÐ øH  ÐJackson's€Hermitage,€Jefferson's€Monticello,€and€the€HamptonÐ À ÐPlantation€in€Georgia,€beef€may€have€been€more€significant€in€theÐ ˆØ Ðslave€diet€than€commonly€believed.€€Aged€freedwoman€HarrietÐ P  ÐMcFarlin€Payne€recalled€in€the€quarters:€€"Late€of€an€evening€asÐ h Ðyou'd€go€by€the€doors€you€could€smell€meat€a„frying,€coffee„Ð à0 Ðmaking,€and€good€things€cooking.€€We€were€fed€good."€€AlthoughÐ ¨ø Ðadmittedly€this€coffee€may€have€been€ersatz,€McFarlin's€accountÐ pÀ Ðstill€shows€these€slaves€were€far€removed€from€the€basically€cornÐ 8ˆ Ðand€water€diet€Brown€described€above.€€Although€now€seen€as€aÐ P Ðproven€public€health€menace,€the€giving€of€tobacco€to€slaves€byÐ È Ðplanter€Bennet€Barrow€demonstrates€they€received€more€than€theÐ à Ðbare€necessities.€€In€Louisiana€Olmsted€encountered€a€plantationÐ X¨ Ðthat€to€a€minute€degree€made€up€for€the€almost€inhuman€hours€ofÐ  p Ðgrinding€season:€€It€issued€extra€rations€of€flour€and€allowedÐ è8 Ðthe€sugar€refinery's€hands€to€drink€as€much€coffee€and€eat€asÐ °  Ðmuch€molasses€as€they€wished.€€Tobacco€rations€were€regularlyÐ xÈ! Ðdispensed€year€around,€and€molasses€during€winter€and€earlyÐ @" Ðsummer.€€Cato€of€Alabama€remembered€as€a€slave€his€mistress€onÐ  X# ÐSunday€gave€out€chickens€and€flour.€€He€also€had€vegetables€andÐ Ð $ Ðdried€beef€for€eating€later.€€Plowden€C.€J.€Weston,€a€SouthÐ ˜!è% ÐCarolina€rice€planter€with€several€plantations,€prepared€aÐ `"°& Ðstandard€contract€for€his€overseers€which€included€standardÐ (#x' Ðrations€(some€weekly,€some€monthly,€some€in€only€certain€seasonsÐ ð#@( Ðor€conditional€upon€good€behavior)€of€rice,€potatoes,€grits,Ð ¸$ ) Ðsalt,€flour,€fish€or€molasses,€peas,€meat,€and€tobacco.€€SomeÐ €%Ð * Ðmasters€also€issued€(appropriately)€buttermilk€to€the€oftenÐ H&˜!+ Ðlactose„intolerant€slaves.€€Many€slaves€got€their€hands€onÐ '`", Ðâ âalcohol€through€their€own€earnings€or€by€selling€property€stolenÐ Ø'(#- Ðfrom€their€masters.׃&×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú34Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€So€although€Fogel€and€Engerman's€rosyÐ ° Ðâ âperceptions€of€the€slave€diet€have€some€support,€the€weight€ofÐ xÈ Ðthe€literary€sources€available€fails€to€sustain€their€caseÐ @ Ðoverall,€thus€implying€the€existence€of€flaws€in€theirÐ X Ðquantitative€sampling€methodology.€€The€slaves€usually€"enjoyed"Ð Ð  Ða€spartan€diet--although€their€poor€white€neighbors€perhaps€oftenÐ ˜è Ðwere€only€somewhat€better€off--but€a€number€had€more€than€theÐ ` ° Ðstandard€rations€through€having€more€progressive€and/or€indulgentÐ ( x Ðmasters€and€mistresses€and/or€unusual€opportunities€or€abilitiesÐ ð @ Ðto€get€food€on€their€own.€€Ð ¸   ÐÌòòà@€€ìàThe€Diet€of€English€Farmworkers:€€Regional€VariationsóóˆÐ H ˜  ÐÌà  àTurning€to€the€English€agricultural€workers'€diet,€strongÐ Ø(  Ðregional€variations€must€be€remembered.€€In€the€same€way€theÐ  ð  ÐBorder€States€usually€treated€their€slaves€better€than€the€DeepÐ h¸  ÐSouth€partially€because€of€their€ability€to€more€easily€escape€toÐ 0€  Ðthe€North,€the€English€farmworkers€living€in€areas€north€of€theÐ øH  ÐMidlands€lived€better€than€their€brethren€to€the€south,€where€theÐ À Ðmost€desperate€rural€poverty€prevailed.€€Additionally,€the€grain„Ð ˆØ Ðgrowing€arable€districts€in€the€southeast,€due€to€greaterÐ P  Ðseasonal€variations€in€employment,€normally€had€worse€conditionsÐ h Ðfor€their€generally€more€numerous€inhabitants€than€the€pastoral,Ð à0 Ðshepherding,€dairying€districts€in€the€southwest.€€Sir€JamesÐ ¨ø ÐCaird's€dividing€line,€drawn€from€the€Wash€(north€of€East€Anglia)Ð pÀ Ðacross€England€through€the€middle€of€Shropshire,€quite€accuratelyÐ 8ˆ Ðdivides€the€high„wage€north€from€the€low„wage€south.€€In€theÐ P Ðnorth,€because€farmers€as€employers€faced€the€competition€of€mineÐ È Ðoperators€and€factory€owners€for€labor,€they€had€to€pay€higherÐ à Ðwages.€€Otherwise,€low€wages€would€provoke€farmworkers€to€"voteÐ X¨ Ðwith€their€feet,"€causing€them€to€migrate€to€nearby€booming€urbanÐ  p Ðareas€benefiting€from€the€economic€expansion€produced€by€theÐ è8 Ðindustrial€revolution.€€Even€the€likes€of€E.P.€Thompson€admitsÐ °  Ðthat€the€real€wages€of€laborers€in€such€areas€probably€"had€beenÐ xÈ! Ðrising€in€the€decades€before€1790,€especially€in€areas€contiguousÐ @" Ðto€manufacturing€or€mining€districts.€€'There€wants€a€war€toÐ  X# Ðreduce€wages,'€was€the€cry€of€some€northern€gentry€in€the€1790s."€Ð Ð $ ÐBy€contrast,€in€the€south,€outside€of€London,€a€city€of€tradesÐ ˜!è% Ðdominated€by€skilled€artisans€which€also€contained€relativelyÐ `"°& Ðlittle€factory€employment,€few€òònearbyóó€urban€areas€possessedÐ (#x' Ðemployers€competing€for€unskilled€labor.€€The€increasinglyÐ ð#@( Ðoverpopulated€southern€English€countryside€during€this€period€(c.Ð ¸$ ) Ð1750„1860),€and€the€very€understandable€reluctance€of€ruralÐ ° Ðlaborers€to€relocate€long€distances,€enabled€the€gentry€andÐ xÈ Ðfarmers€to€successfully€rachet€down€wages€to€levels€often€barelyÐ @ Ðabove€subsistence,€especially€for€married€men€with€largeÐ X Ðfamilies.€€According€to€Brinley,€in€1850„51€southern€England'sÐ Ð  Ðaverage€weekly€agricultural€wages€were€eight€shillings,€fiveÐ ˜è Ðpence,€about€26€percent€lower€than€northern€England's.€€By€JamesÐ ` ° ÐCaird's€calculations,€the€difference€was€37€percent.׃'×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú35Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Under€theÐ ( x Ðold€poor€law€(pre„1834),€parish€relief€increasingly€became€a€wayÐ ð @ Ðof€life€for€many€of€the€rural€poor,€especially€during€winterÐ ¸   Ðmonths€in€arable€counties€due€to€their€strongly€seasonal€swingsÐ € Ð  Ðin€agricultural€employment.€€The€subsidizing€of€wages€directlyÐ H ˜  Ðout€of€parish€relief€funds€raised€by€local€property€taxes€("theÐ `  Ðpoor€rates")€put€mere€bandages€over€the€deep€wounds€ultimatelyÐ Ø(  Ðinflicted€by€the€decline€of€service,€the€enclosure€acts,€andÐ  ð  Ðpopulation€growth.€€Unfortunately,€such€"solutions"€as€theÐ h¸  ÐSpeenhamland€system,€which€gave€supplemental€allowances€fromÐ 0€  Ðparish€relief€funds€to€members€of€families€commensurate€with€theÐ øH  Ðrise€and€fall€of€bread€prices,€only€served€to€depress€wagesÐ À Ðfurther.€€The€grim€picture€of€southern€farmworkers'€familiesÐ ˆØ Ðdepending€year€around€mostly€on€the€(frequently€irregularlyÐ P  Ðemployed)€father's€wages€of€ten€shillings€a€week€or€less€andÐ h Ðlittle€else€besides€parish€relief€sharply€contrasts€with€theÐ à0 Ðnorthern€agricultural€workers'€much€higher€wages,€the€greaterÐ ¨ø Ðavailability€of€work€for€wives€and/or€children,€and€the€frequentÐ pÀ Ðsurvival€of€service€(the€hiring€of€(unmarried)€farm€servantsÐ 8ˆ Ðunder€one€year€contracts).Ð P ÐÌ€à  àThe€agricultural€workers€south€of€Caird's€wage€line€oftenÐ à Ðendured€truly€desperate€material€conditions.€€A€majority€of€themÐ X¨ Ðprobably€had€a€lower€standard€of€living€than€the€moderatelyÐ  p Ðbetter„off€slaves.€€In€particular,€meat€had€largely€fallen€out€ofÐ è8 Ðthe€diets€of€southern€English€farmworkers.€€Remembering€as€aÐ °  Ðchild€how€scarce€meat€was€in€Warwickshire,€AgriculturalÐ xÈ! ÐLabourers'€Union€organizer€and€leader€Joseph€Arch€(b.€1826)Ð @" Ðcommented:€€Ð  X# ÐÐ Ð $ Ðà8  àMeat€was€rarely,€if€ever,€to€be€seen€on€the€labourer'sÐ ° Ðtable;€the€price€was€too€high€for€his€pocket,--a€bigÐ xÈ Ðpocket€it€was,€but€with€very€little€in€it...€€InÐ @ Ðmany€a€household€even€a€morsel€of€bacon€was€consideredÐ X Ða€luxury.€€Flour€was€so€dear€that€the€cottage€loaf€wasÐ Ð  Ðmostly€of€barley.€Ð˜èÐ Ð  ÐÌHe€then€discusses€how€scarce€potatoes€were€in€"countryÐ ( x Ðdistricts"--or€at€least€in€1830s€Warwickshire.€€(For€the€growingÐ ð @ Ðdependency€of€the€English€on€potatoes,€see€pp.€33„35).€€LocallyÐ ¸   Ðonly€one€farmer,€a€hoarder€in€1835,€had€grown€them.€€Similarly,€aÐ € Ð  Ð"Rector€and€Conservative"€described€the€status€of€"bacon,€[which]Ð H ˜  Ðwhen€they€can€get€it,€is€the€staff€of€the€laborers'€dinner."€€AÐ `  Ðcareful€rationing€exercise€accompanied€its€appearance,€whichÐ Ø(  Ðbefit€male€privilege,€or€female€self„sacrifice,€depending€onÐ  ð  Ðone's€perspective:€€"The€frugal€housewife€provides€a€large€lot€ofÐ h¸  Ðpotatoes,€and€while€she€indulges€herself€with€her€younger€onesÐ 0€  Ðonly€with€salt,€cuts€off€the€small€rasher€and€toasts€it€over€theÐ øH  Ðplates€of€the€father€and€elder€sons,€as€being€the€òòbreadwinners;óóÐ À Ðand€òòthis€is€all€they€want.óó"׃(×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú36Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Ð ˆØ ÐÌòòà@((ìàThe€Southern€English€Agricultural€Workers'€Diet€Was€Poor,€OftenˆÐ h ÐMeatlessóóÐ à0 ÐÌà  àòòóóWilliam€Cobbett,€the€great€Tory„turned„radical€journalistÐ pÀ Ðand€gadfly,€saw€up€close€the€poor,€largely€meatless€diet€ofÐ 8ˆ Ðsouthern€farm€laborers.€€While€travelling€in€Hampshire,€he€notedÐ P Ðthe€"poor€creatures"€who€"are€doomed€to€lead€a€life€of€constantÐ È Ðlabour€and€of€half„starvation."€€After€mentioning€the€snack€of€aÐ à Ðpound€of€bread€and€a€quarter€pound€of€cheese€he€and€his€young€sonÐ X¨ Ðate€came€to€five€pence,€or€almost€three€shillings,€if€they€had€itÐ  p Ðdaily,€he€wondered:€€Ð è8 ÐÌà8  àHow,€then,€Gracious€God!€is€a€labouring€man,€his€wife,Ð xÈ! Ðand,€perhaps,€four€or€five€small€children,€to€existÐ @" Ðupon€8s.€or€9s.€a€week!€€Aye,€and€to€find€house„rent,Ð  X# Ðclothing,€bedding€and€fuel€out€of€it?€€Richard€and€IÐ Ð $ Ðate€here,€at€this€snap,€more,€and€much€more,€than€theÐ ˜!è% Ðaverage€of€labourers,€their€wives€and€children,€have€toÐ `"°& Ðeat€in€a€whole€day,€and€that€the€labourer€has€to€òòworkóóÐ (#x' Ðon€too!Ðð#@(Ð Ð  ÐÌWhen€facing€such€tight€budgets,€laborers€spent€little€on€meat,Ð €%Ð * Ðbut€concentrated€on€cereal€foodstuffs€or€(perhaps)€potatoes,Ð H&˜!+ Ðwhich€Cobbett€hated€to€see.€€Later€in€the€same€county,€heÐ '`", Ðindignantly€observed:€€Ð Ø'(#- Їà8  àThese€poor€creatures,€that€I€behold,€here€òòpass€theirÐ ° Ðlives€amidst€flocks€of€sheep;óó€but,€never€does€a€morselÐ xÈ Ðof€mutton€enter€their€lips.€€A€labouring€man€told€me,Ð @ Ðat€Binley,€that€òòhe€had€not€tasted€meat€since€harvest;óóÐ X Ð[this€was€written€Nov.€7th]€and€his€looks€vouched€forÐ Ð  Ðthe€statement.׃)×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú37Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ИèÐ Ð  ÐÌà  àCobbett's€polemics€constitute€only€a€small€part€of€theÐ ( x Ðevidence€describing€how€poor€the€laborers'€diet€was€in€southernÐ ð @ ÐEngland.€€Caleb€Bawcombe,€a€shepherd,€recalled€for€Hudson€how€theÐ ¸   Ðsight€of€deer€tempted€his€father€Isaac€into€poaching€while€livingÐ € Ð  Ðin€Wiltshire€(c.€1820):Ð H ˜  ÐÌà8  àFor€many€many€days€he€had€eaten€his€barley€bread,€andÐ Ø(  Ðon€some€days€barley„flour€dumplings,€and€had€beenÐ  ð  Ðcontent€with€this€poor€fare;€but€now€the€sight€of€theseÐ h¸  Ðanimals€[deer]€made€him€crave€for€meat€with€anÐ 0€  Ðintolerable€craving,€and€he€determined€to€do€somethingÐ øH  Ðto€satisfy€it.ÐÀÐ Ð  ÐÌSomerville€encountered€one€man,€who€was€better€fed€in€prison€(heÐ P  Ðhad€participated€in€the€Swing€Riots€of€1830)€than€when€freed€toÐ h Ðlive€in€Hampshire.€€In€prison€he€ate€four€times€a€week€14€ouncesÐ à0 Ðof€meat.€€"No€working€man€like€me€as€can€get€it€[good€meat].€€IÐ ¨ø Ðwish€I€had€as€much€meat€now€as€I€had€in€the€hulk;€and€I€wishesÐ pÀ Ðthe€same€to€every€poor€hard„working€man€in€Hampshire."€€WhileÐ 8ˆ Ðvisiting€England,€Olmsted€learned€of€this€pathetic€vignette€fromÐ P Ða€farmer.€€Illustrating€how€scarce€fresh€meat€was€in€theÐ È Ðlaborers'€diets,€they€gorged€themselves€the€few€times€they€couldÐ à Ðafford€it:€€Ð X¨ ÐÌà8  àThey€[the€laborers]€will€hardly€taste€it€[òòfreshóó€meat]Ð è8 Ðall€their€lives,€except,€it€may€be,€once€a€year,€at€aÐ °  Ðfair,€when€they'll€go€to€the€cook„shops€and€stuffÐ xÈ! Ðthemselves€with€all€they'll€hold€of€it;€and€if€youÐ @" Ðcould€see€them,€you'd€say€they€did€not€know€what€it€wasÐ  X# Ðor€what€was€to€be€done€with€it--cutting€it€into€greatÐ Ð $ Ðmouthfuls€and€gobbling€it€down€without€any€chewing,Ð ˜!è% Ðlike€as€a€fowl€does€barleycorns,€till€it€chokes€him.Ð`"°&Ð Ð  ÐÌEdward€Butt,€a€Sussex€relieving€officer€and€farmer,€recalled€forÐ ð#@( Ðthe€Committee€on€the€New€Poor€Law€that€when€he€was€youngerÐ ¸$ ) Ð(before€1794)€the€laborers€had€some€meat€everyday€with€theirÐ ° Ðbread€when€they€came€to€eat€in€his€father's€farmhouse.€€But€byÐ xÈ Ð1837,€they€mainly€ate€bread€and€vegetables,€especially€potatoes.€Ð @ ÐUnable€to€get€milk€in€his€area,€the€farmworkers€also€ate€littleÐ X Ðmeat.€€Somerville€found€one€Wiltshire€laborer,€although€saddenedÐ Ð  Ðby€his€young€son's€death,€not€fully€regretting€it€either:€€"WeÐ ˜è Ðben't€sorry€he€be€gone.€€I€hopes€he€be€happy€in€heaven.€€He€ate€aÐ ` ° Ðsmart€deal;€and€many€a€time,€like€all€on€us,€went€with€a€hungryÐ ( x Ðbelly."€€Ironically,€while€serving€a€sentence€in€Bermuda€forÐ ð @ Ðpoaching:€€"We€had€òòterrible€good€livingóó€.€.€.€by€as€I€ever€hadÐ ¸   Ðfor€working€in€England.€€Fresh€beef€three€times€a„week,€pork€andÐ € Ð  Ðpeas€four€times€a„week."€€When€imprisoned€laborers€ate€betterÐ H ˜  Ðfree€ones,€Wiltshire's€dire€conditions€can€only€be€imagined.€Ð `  ÐSimilarly,€one€laborer€in€Hampshire€told€Somerville:€€"They€sayÐ Ø(  Ðmeat€be€wonderful€cheap€in€Reading,€but€what€of€it€being€cheap€toÐ  ð  Ðwe€who€can't€buy€it€at€no€price?"€€Speaking€more€generally,€DeaneÐ h¸  Ðand€Cole€note€an€increase€in€England's€grain€growing€acreage€tookÐ 0€  Ðplace€"at€the€expense€of€the€nation's€meat€supply"€during€theÐ øH  ÐFrench€Wars.€€As€shown€by€meat€having€disappeared€from€theirÐ À Ðdinner€tables,€many€agricultural€workers€in€southern€England€wereÐ ˆØ Ðbeaten€down€to€the€edge€of€subsistence.׃*×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú38Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð P  ÐÌòòà8  àGrains,€especially€Wheat,€Dominate€the€AgriculturalÐ à0 ÐWorkers'€Dietóóà  àШøÐ Ð  ÐÌà  àPerhaps€best€illustrating€the€importance€of€grain€in€Hodge'sÐ 8ˆ Ðdiet,€consider€the€case€of€one€Hampshire€laborer€and€his€family.€Ð P ÐThey€normally€only€ate€bread,€with€some€vegetables.€€SomervilleÐ È Ðlearned€the€father€had€for€breakfast€just€dry€bread,€if€anythingÐ à Ðat€all,€before€mid„day.€€Especially€in€hard€times,€the€laborers'sÐ X¨ Ðbudgets€might€be€80€percent€or€more€committed€to€buying€breadÐ  p Ðand/or€flour.€€Looming€large€in€the€diet€of€southern€EnglishÐ è8 Ðagricultural€workers,€wheat€was€the€dominant€grain,€at€least€inÐ °  Ðgood€times.€€Barley,€rye,€or€oats€also€put€their€appearances,Ð xÈ! Ðwith€the€last€being€the€north's€dominant€grain.€€These€grains€hadÐ ° Ðthe€advantage€of€avoiding€some€of€the€nutritional€pitfalls€ofÐ xÈ Ðcorn€(maize).€€For€all€his€travails,€Hodge€in€southern€EnglandÐ @ Ðdid€not€suffer€from€pellagra,€as€many€black€slaves€in€theÐ X ÐAmerican€South€likely€did€for€some€part€of€the€year.€€SinceÐ Ð  Ðreliance€on€grains€other€than€wheat€in€southern€England€wasÐ ˜è Ðdeemed€a€sign€of€poverty,€laborers€often€resented€eating€breadÐ ` ° Ðmade€out€of€anything€else.€€Showing€barley€did€not€always€makeÐ ( x Ðfor€palatable€fare,€and€pointing€to€exceptional€poverty€for€theÐ ð @ Ðsouthern€English,€consider€this€story€Hudson€learned€aboutÐ ¸   Ðconditions€in€Wiltshire€(c.€1830)€for€those€on€the€parish€make„Ð € Ð  Ðwork€detail€during€the€winter€months.€€Some€of€his€most€elderlyÐ H ˜  Ðinformants€told€of€how€the€laborers€played€with€their€food€in€theÐ `  Ðfields:Ð Ø(  ÐÌà8  àThe€men€would€take€their€dinners€with€them,€consistingÐ h¸  Ðof€a€few€barley€balls€or€cakes,€in€their€coat€pockets,Ð 0€  Ðand€at€noon€they€would€gather€at€one€spot€to€enjoyÐ øH  Ðtheir€meal,€and€seat€themselves€on€the€ground€in€a€veryÐ À Ðwide€circle,€the€men€about€ten€yards€apart,€then€eachÐ ˆØ Ðone€would€produce€his€bannocks,€and€start€throwing,Ð P  Ðaiming€at€some€other€man's€face;€there€were€hits€andÐ h Ðmisses€and€great€excitement€and€hilarity€for€twenty€orÐ à0 Ðthirty€minutes,€after€which€the€earth€and€gravelÐ ¨ø Ðadhering€to€the€balls€would€be€wiped€off,€and€theyÐ pÀ Ðwould€set€themselves€to€the€hard€task€of€masticatingÐ 8ˆ Ðand€swallowing€the€heavy€stuff.ÐPÐ Ð  ÐÌAdmittedly,€food€fights€during€lunch€with€barley€balls€wereÐ à Ðexceptional.€€For€the€southern€English,€wheat€was€their€mainstay,Ð X¨ Ðwith€94€percent€of€the€population€in€southern€and€eastern€EnglandÐ  p Ðsubsisting€on€wheat€in€1801.€€In€contrast,€the€northern€English,Ð è8 Ðdespite€higher€incomes,€had€less€of€a€taste€for€wheat.€€AccordingÐ °  Ðto€Thomas,€just€some€25€percent€of€them€lived€upon€it,€while€50Ð xÈ! Ðpercent€consumed€oats,€18€percent€barley,€and€6€percent€rye.€Ð @" ÐDuring€the€1760s,€Charles€Smith€judged,€assuming€a€population€ofÐ  X# Ðaround€six€million€in€England€and€Wales,€that€3,750,000€ateÐ Ð $ Ðwheat,€888,000€rye,€623,000€oats,€and€739,000€barley.€€Evidently,Ð ˜!è% Ðwheat€bread€grew€in€market€share€until€the€1790s,€when€over€two„Ð `"°& Ðthirds€of€the€population€relied€upon€wheat.€€The€southern€EnglishÐ (#x' Ðdesire€to€cling€to€the€wheaten€loaf€and€to€resist€shifting€toÐ ð#@( Ðpotatoes€or€other€grains€despite€their€low€wages€and€the€effectsÐ ¸$ ) Ðof€enclosure€combined,€Thomas€infers,€to€cause€them€possibly€toÐ €%Ð * Ðeat€òòlessóó€wheat€than€formerly€and€perhaps€even€less€food€overall.€Ð H&˜!+ ÐThe€northern€English€preference€for€oats€(similar€to€the€Scots')Ð '`", Ðwas€made€largely€possible€by€the€availability€of€inexpensive€milkÐ Ø'(#- Ðto€the€poor.€€Due€to€enclosures€taking€away€most€of€their€cows,Ð  (ð#. Ðâ âlaborers€in€the€south€could€not€easily€do€likewise,€as€theÐ h)¸$/ ÐHammonds€saw.׃+×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú39Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€By€opposing€having€òòcoarseróó€grains€the€mainstayÐ ° Ðâ âof€their€diet,€the€southern€English€may€well€kept€the€finerÐ xÈ Ð"luxury€grain"€(wheat)€in€their€diet€only€by€eating€less€of€it.Ð @ ÐÌòòà@ddìàThe€Role€of€Potatoes€in€the€Laborers'€Diet,€Despite€PrejudicesˆÐ Ð  ÐAgainst€ThemóóÐ ˜è ÐÌà  àPotatoes€played€an€important€role€in€the€laborers'€diet,Ð ( x Ðespecially€as€the€nineteenth€century€drew€on,€and€desperationÐ ð @ Ðbroke€down€resistance€against€substituting€them€for€grain.€Ð ¸   ÐExemplifying€this€contempt€for€potatoes,€Cobbett€saw€them€as€aÐ € Ð  Ðsign€of€the€English€sliding€down€to€the€Irish€level:Ð H ˜  ÐÌà8  àI€see€[in€Sussex]€very€few€of€"òòIreland's€lazy€root;óó"Ð Ø(  Ðand€never,€in€this€country,€will€the€people€be€baseÐ  ð  Ðenough€to€lie€down€and€expire€from€starvation€under€theÐ h¸  Ðoperation€of€the€òòextreme€unction!óó€€Nothing€but€aÐ 0€  Ðòòpotatoe„eateróó€will€ever€do€that.ÐøH Ð Ð  ÐÌFurther,€rather€than€see€the€English€working€people€reduced€intoÐ ˆØ Ðliving€on€potatoes,Ð P  ÐÌà8  àhe€would€see€them€all€hanged,€and€be€hanged€with€them,Ð à0 Ðand€would€be€satisfied€to€have€written€upon€his€grave,Ð ¨ø Ð'Here€lie€the€remains€of€William€Cobbett,€who€wasÐ pÀ Ðhanged€because€he€would€not€hold€his€tongue€withoutÐ 8ˆ Ðcomplaining€while€his€labouring€countrymen€were€reducedÐ P Ðto€live€upon€potatoes.'׃,( ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú40Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ÐÈÐ Ð  ÐÌDespite€Cobbett's€opposition,€a€man€full€of€the€prejudices€of€theÐ X¨ Ðsouthern€farmworker€which€in€spirit€he€remained,€potatoes€becameÐ ° Ðimportant€in€Hodge's€diet.€€Demonstrating€the€decay€of€farmÐ xÈ Ðlaborers'€anti„potato€sentiments,€one€Dorsetshire€landowner€inÐ @ ÐDorset€successfully€got€laborers€to€reclaim€wasteland€for€him€inÐ X Ðreturn€for€planting€potatoes,€despite€they€knew€next€year€theÐ Ð  Ðprocess€would€be€repeated€with€another€piece€of€land.€€InÐ ˜è ÐSomerset€in€1845€during€the€Irish€potato€famine€the€blight€wipedÐ ` ° Ðout€all€the€potatoes.€€Due€to€the€laborers'€extreme€dependence€onÐ ( x Ðthem,€this€was€a€disaster€because€their€wages€averaged€a€mereÐ ð @ Ðseven€shillings€and€six€pence€a€week€year€around:€€"For€yearsÐ ¸   Ðpast€their€daily€diet€is€potatoes€for€breakfast,€dinner,€andÐ € Ð  Ðsupper,€and€potatoes€only.€€This€year€they€are€not€living€onÐ H ˜  Ðpotatoes,€because€they€have€none."€€In€Sussex,€Somerville€found€aÐ `  Ðlaborer's€wife€complaining€about€"how€it€hurts€the€constitutionÐ Ø(  Ðof€a€man€to€work€hard€on€potatoes,€and€nothing€else€but€a€bit€ofÐ  ð  Ðdry€bread."€€This€family€ate€four€days€a€week€normally€onlyÐ h¸  Ðpotatoes€and€dry€bread.€€Somerville€even€exaggerated€howÐ 0€  Ðimportant€potatoes€were€in€the€diet€of€English€laborers.€€WhenÐ øH  Ðcommenting€on€how€the€potato€blight€had€wiped€out€the€crop€in€theÐ À Ðsouth€and€west€of€England,€he€said€this€event€had€gotten€far€lessÐ ˆØ Ðattention€than€the€Irish€disaster:€€"Surely€the€English€potatoesÐ P  Ðare€not€to€be€overlooked,€nor€the€English€labourers,€whose€chiefÐ h Ðarticle€of€diet€potatoes€are.€.€.€.€€How€much€greater€must€be€theÐ à0 Ðsuffering€be€when€to€dearness€of€bread€there€is€the€companionshipÐ ¨ø Ðof€scarcity€of€potatoes!"€€Now€although€potatoes€loomedÐ pÀ Ðincreasingly€large€in€the€laborers'€diet,€and€1845„46€was€a€badÐ 8ˆ Ðyear€for€both€England€and€Ireland,€grains€still€remained€theirÐ P Ðstaff€of€life€generally,€unlike€for€the€Irish.€€Still,€Cobbett'sÐ È Ðanti„potato€campaign€must€be€ranked€an€ultimate€failure:€€NearÐ à Ðthe€town€of€Farnham€where€Cobbett€was€born€and€buried,€SomervilleÐ X¨ Ðfound€"the€finest€specimens€of€this€year's€crop€which€I€have€seenÐ  p Ðin€any€part€of€England,"€having€seen€some€excellent€patches€ofÐ è8 Ðpotatoes€between€that€place€and€the€location€of€Cobbett's€farm€atÐ °  ÐNormandy.׃-×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú41Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð xÈ! ÐÌòòà@Ø Ø ìàDid€Farmworkers€Prefer€Coarse€or€Fine€Food?óóˆÐ  X# ÐÌà  àAgainst€the€view€that€the€farmworkers€(or€slaves,€byÐ ˜!è% Ðimplication)€prefer€finer€and€less€coarse€foods,€Jeffries€onceÐ `"°& Ðcommented€on€Hodge's€desires€and€the€problems€with€changing€whatÐ (#x' ÐMrs.€Hodge€winds€up€cooking:Ð ð#@( ÐÌà8  àThe€difficulty€arises€from€the€rough,€coarse€tastes€ofÐ €%Ð * Ðthe€labourer,€and€the€fact,€which€it€is€useless€toÐ H&˜!+ Ðignore,€that€he€must€have€something€solid,€and€indeed,Ð '`", Ðbulky....€€Give€him€the€finest€soup;€give€him€òòpates,óóÐ Ø'(#- Ðor€even€more€meaty€òòentrees,óó€and€his€remark€will€be€thatÐ  (ð#. Ðit€is€very€nice,€but€he€wants€'summat€to€eat'.€€HisÐ h)¸$/ Ðteeth€are€large,€his€jaws€strong,€his€digestive€powersÐ 0*€%0 Ðsuch€as€would€astonish€a€city€man;€he€likes€solid€food,Ð ° Ðbacon,€butcher's€meat,€cheese,€or€something€that€givesÐ xÈ Ðhim€a€sense€of€fullness,€like€a€mass€of€vegetables.€Ð @ ÐThis€is€the€natural€result€of€his€training€to€work€inÐ X Ðthe€fields....€€Let€anyone€go€and€labour€daily€inÐ Ð  Ðthe€field,€and€they€will€come€quickly€to€the€sameÐ ˜è Ðopinion.Ð` °Ð Ð  ÐÌAlthough€his€rather€condescending€views€were€on€target€concerningÐ ð @ Ðfood€preparation,€they€ignore€the€farmworkers'€desires€for€a€lessÐ ¸   Ðcoarse€grain€since€it€may€compose€80€percent€or€more€of€theirÐ € Ð  Ðdiets.€€Certainly,€some€class€bias€is€definitely€coloringÐ H ˜  ÐJeffries'€views€of€Hodge's€real€desires.€€Consider€theÐ `  Ðimplications€of€bread€remaining€the€staff€of€life€for€theÐ Ø(  Ðlaborers€and€making€up€most€of€their€daily€calories.€€To€switchÐ  ð  Ðfrom€wheat€to€barley,€or€to€oatmeal€without€milk,€would€taxÐ h¸  Ðanyone's€digestive€system€used€to€the€first€grain€when€it€is€òòmostóóÐ 0€  Ðof€what€he€or€she€eats,€not€just€an€incidental€as€(wheat)€breadÐ øH  Ðis€in€many€contemporary€Americans'€diets.€€Anyway,€Jeffries€wasÐ À Ðnot€discussing€grain€substitution€at€all.€€Unlike€mostÐ ˆØ Ðaristocrats,€the€laborers€engaged€in€heavy€physical€work€neededÐ P  Ðserious€bulk€in€their€diet€in€order€to€have€sufficient€caloriesÐ h Ðto€sustain€their€efforts,€but€their€food€need€not€be€unusuallyÐ à0 Ðhard€to€digest€or€unpalatably€coarse€after€its€preparation€toÐ ¨ø Ðfulfill€their€needs.€€Indeed,€according€to€Young,€food€that€wasÐ pÀ Ðtoo€bulky€might€slow€down€the€laborers€eating€it.€€As€E.P.Ð 8ˆ ÐThompson€confirms:€€"There€is€a€suggestion€that€labourersÐ P Ðaccustomed€to€wheaten€bread€actually€could€not€work--sufferedÐ È Ðfrom€weakness,€indigestion,€or€nausea--if€forced€to€change€toÐ à Ðrougher€mixtures."׃.×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú42Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Although€these€complaints€were€likelyÐ X¨ Ðpartially€psychosomatic,€they€still€show€the€laborers€preferredÐ  p Ðless„coarse€grain€in€their€diet.€€€€€Ð è8 ÐÌà  àAdmittedly,€the€southern€farmworkers'€partiality€for€theÐ xÈ! Ðwhite€wheaten€loaf€was€rather€unwise€from€a€modern€dietician'sÐ @" Ðviewpoint,€as€Olmsted€observed:€€"No€doubt€a€coarser€bread€wouldÐ  X# Ðbe€more€wholesome,€but€it€is€one€of€the€strongest€prejudices€ofÐ Ð $ Ðthe€English€peasant,€that€brown€bread€is€not€fit€for€humanÐ ˜!è% Ðbeings."€€This€comment€raises€the€issue€of€taking€into€accountÐ `"°& Ðthe€laborers'€definitions€of€"good€conditions"€before€judgingÐ (#x' Ðthese€by€purely€modern€criteria.€€Snell€discusses€this€issue€atÐ ð#@( Ðlength.€€If€Hodge€placed€a€strong€priority€on€eating€fine€whiteÐ ¸$ ) Ðwheat€bread,€outsiders€are€presumptuous€to€rearrange€his€life€forÐ €%Ð * Ðhim,€saying€he€should€like€what€they€judge€to€be€"good€for€him,"Ð H&˜!+ Ðeven€though€objective€reasons€justify€the€would„be€imposition,Ð '`", Ði.e.,€the€health€advantages€of€increasing€the€amount€of€bran€inÐ Ø'(#- Ðthe€daily€diet.€€The€threat€to€the€status€of€English€laborersÐ ° Ðposed€by€coarser€or€non„wheaten€bread€in€times€of€dearth€wasÐ xÈ Ðrather€irrational,€but€it€still€was€probably€more€sensible€than€aÐ @ Ðcontemporary€preference€among€the€young€for€designer€brand€jeansÐ X Ðor€sneakers€over€store€brands€of€similar€quality.€€The€"BrownÐ Ð  ÐBread€Act's"€attempts€to€force€laborers€to€consume€bread€made€ofÐ ˜è Ðwholemeal€flour€provoked€riots€even€during€the€terrible€1800„1801Ð ` ° Ðagricultural€year.€€In€Surrey€and€Sussex€in€southern€England,€theÐ ( x Ðresistance€to€this€law€was€especially€strong;€unsurpisingly,€itÐ ð @ Ðlasted€less€than€two€months.׃/×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú43Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ¸   ÐÌòòà  àThe€Monotony€of€the€Farmworkers'€Diet€in€the€South€ofÐ H ˜  ÐEnglandóóÐ `  ÐÌà  àThe€southern€English€agricultural€workers'€diet€wasÐ  ð  Ðmonotonous,€like€the€slaves'.€€In€the€Salisbury€area€(1850)€CairdÐ h¸  Ðfound€it€largely€consisted€of€water,€bread,€some€potatoes,€flourÐ 0€  Ðwith€a€little€butter,€and€possibly€a€little€bacon.€€He€reportsÐ øH  Ðwhat€sounds€like€a€prisoner's€meal:€€"The€supper€very€commonlyÐ À Ðconsists€of€bread€and€water."€€In€1840s€Wiltshire,€SomervilleÐ ˆØ Ðfound€two€laborers€who€could€not€afford€bacon€and€vegetables€withÐ P  Ðevery€dinner€on€eight€shillings€a€week.€€Following€a€recent€wageÐ h Ðreduction,€"they€did€not€know€how€they€would€with€sevenÐ à0 Ð[shillings]."€€In€Wooburn€parish,€even€in€an€apple€orchard€areaÐ ¨ø Ðmost€laborers€did€not€earn€enough€to€make€apple€pies!€€YearsÐ pÀ Ðlater€(c.€1875),€in€this€same€general€area,€Jefferies€stillÐ 8ˆ Ðcommented€while€noting€improvement:€€"A€basketful€of€apples€evenÐ P Ðfrom€the€farmer's€orchard€[as€a€gift]€is€a€treat€to€the€children,Ð È Ðfor,€though€better€fed€than€formerly,€their€diet€is€necessarilyÐ à Ðmonotonous,€and€such€fruit€as€may€be€grown€in€the€cottage€gardenÐ X¨ Ðis,€of€course,€sold."€€Near€Monmouth,€Olmsted€ran€into€a€laborerÐ  p Ðwho,€although€he€also€had€a€pig€and€a€small€potato€patch,€"oft„Ð è8 Ðtimes€...€could€get€nothing€more€than€dry€bread€for€his€familyÐ °  Ðto€eat."׃0 ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú44Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Thomas€Smart,€a€Bedfordshire€laborer,€and€his€familyÐ xÈ! Ðsubsisted€upon€garden„grown€potatoes,€bread,€and€cheese,€with€aÐ @" Ðlittle€bacon€occasionally,€supplemented€by€tea€and€a€littleÐ  X# Ðsugar.€€At€times€he€went€without€meat€for€a€month.€€Milk€wasÐ Ð $ Ðdifficult€to€buy€from€the€local€farmers.׃1@×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú45Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€òòhotóó€dinnerÐ ˜!è% Ðlaborers€had€around€noon€on€Sunday€Jeffries€described€as€theirÐ ° Ð"the€great€event"€for€the€day.€€Of€course,€beer€certainly€emergedÐ xÈ Ðin€Hodge's€diet€around€harvest€time,€and€often€not€just€then.€Ð @ ÐThe€alcoholic€part€of€the€laborers'€diets€provoked€the€ruralÐ X Ðmiddle€and€upper€classes€into€nearly€endless€moralizing,€at€leastÐ Ð  Ðabout€its€abuses€that€caused€the€father's€wages€to€be€wasted€inÐ ˜è Ðbeerhouses€and€a€lack€of€labor€discipline.€€Due€to€the€nearÐ ` ° Ðabsence€of€meat,€this€diet€was€arguably€less€satisfying€thanÐ ( x Ðslaves',€except€that€its€bread€often€was€purchased€baker's€bread.€Ð ð @ ÐThis€bread,€or€even€what€the€laborer's€wife€made€at€home,€was€aÐ ¸   Ðmuch€more€carefully€prepared€and€refined€product€than€theÐ € Ð  Ðcornmeal€the€slaves€often€had€to€pound€into€a€crude€hoecake€orÐ H ˜  Ðjohnnycake€(cornbread).€€As€Olmsted€(c.€1851)€observed€while€inÐ `  Ðsouthern€England:€€Ð Ø(  ÐÌà8  àThe€main€stay€of€the€laborer's€stomach€is€fine,€whiteÐ h¸  Ðwheaten€bread,€of€the€best€possible€quality,€such€as€itÐ 0€  Ðwould€be€a€luxury€to€get€any€where€else€in€the€world,Ð øH  Ðand€such€as€many€a€New€England€farmer€never€tasted,Ð À Ðand,€even€if€his€wife€were€able€to€make€it,€would€thinkÐ ˆØ Ðan€extravagance€to€be€ordinarily€upon€his€table.׃2` ×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú46Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ÐP Ð Ð  ÐÌAdmittedly,€white€wheat€bread€likely€was€the€òòonlyóó€luxury€HodgeÐ à0 Ðand€his€family€in€the€south€of€England€enjoyed.€€Despite€thisÐ ¨ø Ðparticular€boon,€a€lack€of€meat€still€characterized€the€òòsouthernóóÐ pÀ ÐEnglish€agricultural€laborer's€diet,€although€not€theÐ 8ˆ Ðnortherner's.€€All€in€all,€the€slaves'€"standard€rations"Ð P Ðarguably,€minus€the€problems€of€eating€crude€corn€bread€and€theÐ È Ðrisk€of€pellagra€without€further€supplements,€likely€surpassed€inÐ à Ðoverall€satisfaction€what€the€majority€of€the€free€agriculturalÐ X¨ Ðlaborers€of€England€depended€on€because€meat€(and€milk)€fell€outÐ  p Ðof€their€diet€as€enclosure€advanced,€making€it€difficult€orÐ è8 Ðimpossible€for€them€to€keep€their€own€cows€or€pigs€(see€pp.€40„41Ð °  Ðbelow),€and€they€often€did€not€consume€enough€even€of€starchesÐ xÈ! Ð(potatoes€and€bread)€in€hard€times.Ð @" ÐÌòòà@ìàThe€Superior€Conditions€of€the€Northern€English€FarmworkersóóˆÐ Ð $ Їà  àThe€northern€English€agricultural€laborer€clearly€enjoyedÐ ° Ðsuperior€conditions€to€his€southern€brother€(or€sister)€duringÐ xÈ Ðthe€general€period€of€industrialization.€€Joseph€Arch€recalledÐ @ Ðwhy€the€union€failed€in€organizing€the€northern€farmworkers:Ð X ÐÌà8  àWe€could€not€do€much€in€the€north;€about€Newcastle€andÐ ˜è Ðthose€northern€districts€the€men€were€much€better€paid,Ð ` ° Ðand€they€said,€'The€Union€is€a€good€thing,€but€we€areÐ ( x Ðwell€off€and€can€get€along€without€it.'€€The€Union€wasÐ ð @ Ðstrongest,€and€kept€so,€in€the€Midland,€Eastern,€andÐ ¸   ÐWestern€counties.Ѐ Ð Ð Ð  ÐÌIn€northern€England€near€Scotland,€in€Northumberland€and€Durham,Ð `  Ðthe€1867„68€Commissioners€found€the€wages€were€high€and€that€theÐ Ø(  Ðlabor€market€favored€the€laborers.€€The€institution€of€serviceÐ  ð  Ðstill€persisted€in€northern€Northumberland€in€the€mid€to€lateÐ h¸  Ð1860s.€€They€were€often€paid€in€kind€and€received€fifteen€toÐ 0€  Ðeighteen€shillings€a€week.€€Day€laborers„„those€not€under€aÐ øH  Ðcontract€for€their€service„„received€two€and€a€half€to€threeÐ À Ðshillings€a€day.€€Since€the€laborers'€cottages€were€dispersed,Ð ˆØ Ðthey€avoided€the€pitfalls€of€the€gang€system€since€they€lived€onÐ P  Ðor€near€their€employer's€premises,€thus€eliminating€long€walks€toÐ h Ðwork.€€Wages€were€high€enough€so€their€children€rarely€went€toÐ à0 Ðwork€before€age€fourteen€except€during€summers,€when€eleven„Ð ¨ø Ðtwelve€year€olds€took€to€the€fields€during€agriculture's€seasonalÐ pÀ Ðpeak€in€labor€requirements.€€In€southern€Northumberland,€noneÐ 8ˆ Ðunder€ten€worked.€€Higher€wages€allowed€northern€laborers'Ð P Ðchildren€to€receive€more€education€than€their€southernÐ È Ðcounterparts,€where€the€much€smaller€margin€above€subsistenceÐ à Ðcorrespondingly€increased€the€need€for€them€to€earn€their€keep€asÐ X¨ Ðsoon€as€possible.€€As€another€sign€of€the€North's€tight€laborÐ  p Ðmarket,€òòroutinelyóó€single€women€living€in€their€parents'€homeÐ è8 Ðoften€were€in€farm€service--"bound"€in€"bondage"„„and€did€allÐ °  Ðtypes€of€heavy€farm€work.׃3×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú47Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Excepting€perhaps€for€housing€(seeÐ xÈ! Ðp.€69),€this€area's€agricultural€workers€were€about€as€well„offÐ @" Ðas€non„skilled€manual€laborers€then€could€expect.Ð  X# ÐÌà  àAway€from€these€areas€near€Scotland,€wages€gradually€declineÐ ˜!è% Ðuntil€the€Lincoln\Leicester€area€is€reached,€where€a€ratherÐ `"°& Ðabrupt€transition€to€southern€English€conditions€occurs.€€LincolnÐ (#x' Ðand€Nottingham€had€wages€of€fifteen€to€seventeen€shillings€aÐ ð#@( Ðweek,€but€Leicester€just€eleven.€€Their€diets€reflected€theseÐ ¸$ ) Ðwage€differences,€since€in€Lincoln€laborers'€families€had€meatÐ €%Ð * Ðtwo€or€three€times€a€day,€while€in€Leicester€only€the€father€hadÐ H&˜!+ Ðit,€and€then€just€once€a€day.€€Similarly,€for€Oxfordshire€andÐ '`", Ðnearby,€Somerville€described€many€laborers€as€"always€under„fed,Ð Ø'(#- Ðeven€if€always€employed."€€By€contrast,€Yorkshire's€higher€wagesÐ  (ð#. Ðof€fourteen€shillings€per€week€encouraged€parents€to€keep€theirÐ h)¸$/ Ðchildren€in€school€longer.€€There€farm€service€still€remained,Ð ° Ðwith€foremen€receiving€thirty€pounds€a€year€and€board,€a€wagoner,Ð xÈ Ðsixteen€to€twenty€pounds,€and€plowboys,€ten€to€fourteen.€€TomÐ @ ÐMullins€of€Stafford€remembered€at€age€seventeen€(c.€1880)€heÐ X Ðearned€sixteen€pounds€per€year€and€his€keep.€€In€Stafford,€whereÐ Ð  Ðduring€his€life€he€moved€from€the€southern€to€the€northern€part.€Ð ˜è Ð(Incidently,€Caird's€wage€line€falls€at€this€county's€southernÐ ` ° Ðborder).€€Oatmeal,€frequently€turned€into€thin€sour€cakes€shapedÐ ( x Ðlike€disks,€along€with€dairy€products,€formed€the€mainstay€of€theÐ ð @ Ðdiet€before€c.€1890.€€"Though€wages€were€low€people€managed€onÐ ¸   Ðthem€and€also€saved€a€bit.€€Ten€shillings€went€a€lot€further€thenÐ € Ð  Ðthan€now.€€Bread€was€3d.€the€quartern€loaf,€milk€3d.€a€quart,Ð H ˜  Ðtobacco€3d.€an€ounce€.€.€.€beer€was€2d.,€the€best€was€3d."€€SinceÐ `  Ðservice€persisted€in€his€area,€an€annual€hiring€fair€took€placeÐ Ø(  Ðabout€October€tenth€each€year.€€"But€I€never€need€to€hire€myselfÐ  ð  Ðout,€as€I€always€had€more€jobs€offered€than€I€could€undertake.€Ð h¸  ÐPity€I€couldn't€have€spread€myself€a€bit!"׃4×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú48Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€As€theseÐ 0€  Ðdescriptions€illustrate,€the€diet€of€the€farm€laborers€north€ofÐ øH  ÐCaird's€line€was€quite€good,€showing€unquestionably€that€theyÐ À Ðwere€better€off€on€average€than€most€slaves€in€the€United€StatesÐ ˆØ Ðeven€before€considering€any€quality€of€life€factors.׃5°×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú49Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð P  ÐÌòòà@@ @ !ìàMeat€as€a€Luxury€For€Many€FarmworkersóóˆÐ à0 ÐÌà  àUnlike€most€slaves,€the€meat€English€farm€laborers€ate€oftenÐ pÀ Ðcame€from€what€animals€they€personally€owned€and€slaughteredÐ 8ˆ Ðthemselves,€assuming€they€were€not€sold€to€meet€rent,€clothing,Ð P Ðor€other€expenses.€€In€Wiltshire,€near€Cranbourne,€SomervilleÐ È Ðfound€"all€of€them€[the€laborers]€kept€a€pig€or€two;€but€they€hadÐ à Ðto€sell€them€to€pay€their€rents."€€A€Sussex€farmer/relievingÐ X¨ Ðofficer€told€Parliamentary€Commissioners€that€"every€labourer€atÐ  p Ðthat€time€[pre„1794]€had€a€pig."€€Farmworkers€in€that€area€thenÐ è8 Ðgot€pork€from€feeding€their€own€animal,€not€directly€from€theÐ °  Ðfarmers€they€worked€for.€€Showing€a€serious€decline€in€livingÐ xÈ! Ðstandards€had€set€in,€Somerville€found€in€1840s€Dorset€that€oftenÐ ° Ðlaborers€were€not€òòallowedóó€to€keep€a€pig:€€"The€dictum€of€theÐ xÈ Ðfather€of€Sir€John€Tyrrell,€in€Essex,€is€understood€and€acted€onÐ @ Ðin€Dorset„„'No€labourer€can€be€òòhonestóó€and€feed€a€pig!'"€Ð X ÐBetraying€a€materialistic€bent,€Cobbett€summarized€well€howÐ Ð  Ðimportant€owning€pigs€was€to€the€laborers:€€"The€working€peopleÐ ˜è Ð[near€Worcester]€all€seem€to€have€good€large€gardens,€and€òòpigsóó€inÐ ` ° Ðtheir€styes;€and€this€last,€say€the€òòfeelosofersóó€what€they€willÐ ( x Ðabout€her€'òòantallectalóó€enjoyments,'€is€the€òòonlyóó€security€forÐ ð @ Ðhappiness€in€a€labourer's€family."€€Of€course,€as€part€of€theirÐ ¸   Ðduties€for€their€masters,€slaves€raised€pigs€and€other€animalsÐ € Ð  Ðfor€slaughter.€€But€they€did€not€own€them€personally,€exceptÐ H ˜  Ðwhere€their€masters€and€mistresses€allowed€them€to,€such€as€theÐ `  Ðtask„system„dominated€area€of€lowland€Georgia€and€South€Carolina.€Ð Ø(  ÐIn€England,€butcher's€meat€(i.e.,€the€meat€of€animals€killed€andÐ  ð  Ðalready€cut€up€for€the€buyer)€was€regarded€as€a€luxury.€Ð h¸  ÐConsequently,€classes€above€the€laborers€were€its€mainÐ 0€  Ðconsumers.׃6×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú50Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Jefferies€heaped€scorn€on€maidservants,€born€ofÐ øH  Ðfathers€still€at€the€plow,€who€when€at€"home€ha[d]€been€glad€ofÐ À Ðbread€and€bacon,"€but€after€having€worked€for€wealthy€tenantÐ ˆØ Ðfarmers,€"now€cannot€possibly€survive€without€hot€butcher's€meatÐ P  Ðevery€day,€and€game€and€fish€in€their€seasons."׃7×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú51Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€meatÐ h Ðlaborers€ate€was€often€what€they€had€raised€themselves,€whetherÐ à0 Ðit€was€on€the€commons€before€enclosure,€on€allotments,€or€inÐ ¨ø Ðtheir€own€gardens.€€Depending€on€the€commercial€market€for€meatÐ pÀ Ðwas€not€a€way€to€economize.€€Scarce€until€after€around€1830,Ð 8ˆ Ðallotments€helped€laborers€raise€their€own€pigs€(when€soÐ P Ðallowed).€€Indeed,€in€some€areas€with€allotments€many€or€most€didÐ È Ðkeep€pigs,€in€part€because€these€produced€some€of€the€neededÐ à Ðmanure€to€keep€their€(say)€fourth€or€half€acre€fertile.׃8×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú52Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€But€asÐ X¨ Ðthe€enclosure€movement€gained€strength€after€1760,€strippingÐ ° Ðfarmworkers€of€grazing€land,€they€largely€lost€their€ability€toÐ xÈ Ðraise€their€own€animals€until€allotments€slowly,€partially,€andÐ @ Ðhaphazardly€restored€this€ability€after€c.€1830.Ð X ÐÌòòà  àThe€Effects€of€Enclosure€and€Allotments€on€Hodge's€DietóóÐ ˜è ÐÌà  àAlthough€a€more€general€discussion€enclosure€andÐ ( x Ðalllotments'€social€effects€appears€below€(pp.€279„282,€296„299),Ð ð @ Ðthe€effects€of€both€on€the€diet€of€the€farmworkers€are€consideredÐ ¸   Ðhere.€€Enclosure€affected€cottagers€and€others€who€mixed€wageÐ € Ð  Ðearning€and€subsistence€agriculture€using€the€commons€by€cuttingÐ H ˜  Ðout€the€latter,€throwing€them€fully€upon€what€their€wages€couldÐ `  Ðpurchase.€€As€E.P.€Thompson€observes:€€"In€village€after€village,Ð Ø(  Ðenclosure€destroyed€the€scratch„as„scratch„can€subsistenceÐ  ð  Ðeconomy€of€the€poor„„the€cow€or€geese„„fuel€from€the€common,Ð h¸  Ðgleanings,€and€all€the€rest."€€Ironically,€as€the€ParliamentaryÐ 0€  ÐCommissioners€observed€in€1867„68,€allotments€undid€thisÐ øH  Ðconsequence€of€enclosure,€although€they€came€later€and€affectedÐ À Ðsignificantly€fewer€laborers,€especially€before€the€lateÐ ˆØ Ðnineteenth€century.€€€They€allowed€the€laborers€to€growÐ P  Ðvegetables,€especially€potatoes,€on€a€quarter€or€half€acre€ofÐ h Ðland€specially€rented€out€to€them.€€Despite€his€notoriety€as€anÐ à0 Ðadvocate€of€enclosure,€agricultural€improvement€writer€ArthurÐ ¨ø ÐYoung€learned€that€enclosure€usually€oppressed€the€poor:€€Ð pÀ ÐÌà8  àIn€twenty„nine€cases€out€of€thirty„one€noted€[byÐ P Ðministers€making€additional€comments€on€a€surveyÐ È Ðchecking€the€effects€of€enclosure€on€grain€production],Ð à Ðthe€poor,€in€the€opinion€of€the€ministers,€wereÐ X¨ Ðsufferers€by€losing€their€cows,€and€other€stock....Ð  p Ð[In€some€cases]€allotments€were€assigned€them;€but€asÐ è8 Ðthey€were€unable€to€be€at€the€expense€of€the€enclosure,Ð °  Ðit€forced€them€not€only€to€sell€their€cows,€but€theirÐ xÈ! Ðhouses€also.€€This€is€a€very€òòhardóó€case,€though€a€legalÐ @" Ðone;€and€as€instances€are€not€wanting€of€a€much€moreÐ  X# Ðhumane€conduct,€it€is€to€be€lamented€that€the€sameÐ Ð $ Ðmotives€did€not€operate€in€all.И!è%Ð Ð  ÐÌThese€Anglican€clerics€(members€of€a€group€known€to€be€generallyÐ (#x' Ðunfriendly€to€the€laborers'€best€interests,€as€Cobbett€and€ArchÐ ð#@( Ðmade€clear)€made€comments€that€indicate€enclosure's€role€inÐ ¸$ ) Ðworsening€the€diet€of€the€poor€in€various€areas€following€theÐ €%Ð * Ðloss€of€cows€and€other€animals.€€One€for€the€parish€of€Souldrop,Ð H&˜!+ ÐBedford€observed:€€"The€condition€of€the€labouring€poor€[is]€muchÐ '`", Ðworse€now€than€before€the€enclosure,€owing€to€the€impossibilityÐ Ø'(#- Ðof€procuring€any€milk€for€their€young€families."€€Another€added,Ð  (ð#. Ðfor€Tingewick,€Buckingham:€€"Milk€[was]€to€be€had€at€1òòd.óó€perÐ h)¸$/ Ðquarter€before;€not€to€be€had€now€at€any€rate."€€Repeatedly€theyÐ 0*€%0 Ðsaw€many€had€to€sell€off€or€otherwise€lose€their€cows€(sixteen€ofÐ ° Ðthe€thirty„one€mentioned€this€specifically).€€For€Passenham,Ð xÈ ÐNorthampton,€one€commented:€€"[The€poor€were]€deprived€of€theirÐ @ Ðcows,€and€great€suffers€by€loss€of€their€hogs."€€A€man€of€theÐ X Ðcloth€for€Cranage,€Chester€remarked:€€"Poor€men's€cows€and€sheepÐ Ð  Ðhave€no€place,€or€any€being."€€Such€deprivations€helped€to€breedÐ ˜è Ðresentment€one€laborer€expressed€against€almost€anyone€richerÐ ` ° Ðthan€himself.€€While€attacking€farmers,€lords,€and€parsons,€heÐ ( x Ðadditionally€brought€Somerville€into€his€line€of€fire:€€"I€seeÐ ð @ Ðyou€ha'€got€a€good€coat€on€your€back,€and€a€face€that€don't€lookÐ ¸   Ðlike€an€empty€belly;€there€be€no€hunger€looking€out€atween€yourÐ € Ð  Ðribs€I'll€swear."׃9×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú53Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Clearly,€enclosure€robbed€meat€and€milk€fromÐ H ˜  Ðthe€mouths€of€many€farm€laborers€and€their€families,€and€was€aÐ `  Ðmajor€cause€for€eliminating€animal€foods€from€their€diets€as€theÐ Ø(  Ðenclosure€movement€gained€steam€after€1760€in€areas€with€a€laborÐ  ð  Ðsurplus,€such€as€southern€rural€England.Ð h¸  Ðà  àÌà  àAllotments€returned€some€of€what€enclosure€had€taken.€€TheseÐ øH  Ðsmall€pieces€of€land€gave€underemployed€and€unemployedÐ À Ðfarmworkers€something€to€fall€back€upon€financially.€€Because€ofÐ ˆØ Ðthe€Swing€riots€of€1830„31€and€the€rising€burden€of€poor€ratesÐ P  Ðcaused€by€laborers€applying€for€relief€when€their€wages€wereÐ h Ðinsufficient€to€support€them,€the€movement€to€rent€out€fourth„€orÐ à0 Ðhalf„acre€pieces€of€land€picked€up€speed€as€the€nineteenthÐ ¨ø Ðcentury€passed.€€Intensively€cultivated,€small€amounts€of€landÐ pÀ Ðcould€produce€impressive€amounts€of€food,€as€the€1843€CommitteeÐ 8ˆ Ðreported.€€One€rood€of€land--usually€one„fourth€of€an€acre--couldÐ P Ðgrow€six€months'€worth€of€vegetables!€€Perhaps€one„half€would€beÐ È Ðplanted€in€potatoes,€with€the€rest€being€beans,€peas,€and€otherÐ à Ðvegetables.€€One„eighth€of€an€acre€could€grow€five€pounds'€worthÐ X¨ Ðof€crops--equal€to€ten€weeks€or€more€of€wages€for€many€laborersÐ  p Ðin€southern€England.€€In€at€least€once€case,€such€a€tiny€parcelÐ è8 Ðproduced€eighty€bushels€of€carrots,€fourteen„fifteen€bushels€ofÐ °  Ðother€vegetables,€which€was€double€or€triple€what€the€typicalÐ xÈ! Ðfarmer€would€have€raised€on€the€same€land.€€A€rood's€worth€ofÐ @" Ðland€could€also€yield€a€hundred€bushels€of€potatoes.€€Young€evenÐ  X# Ðpublished€calculations€suggesting€that€if€682,394€laborer'sÐ Ð $ Ðfamilies€each€grew€a€half€acre's€worth€of€potatoes,€then€EnglandÐ ˜!è% Ðwould€have€required€no€grain€imports€in€the€disastrous€1800„1801Ð `"°& Ðagricultural€year.€€Because€of€the€laborers'€enormous€desires€forÐ (#x' Ðparcels€to€grow€potatoes€on„„Cobbett's€hated€root„„some€landlordsÐ ð#@( Ðunscrupulously€charged€rents€up€to€eight€pounds€per€acre€perÐ ¸$ ) Ðyear,€which€greatly€exceeded€what€a€tenant€farmer€would€pay.€Ð €%Ð * ÐAllotments€could€allow€the€farmworkers€to€keep€animals€such€asÐ H&˜!+ Ðpigs,€as€noted€above€(pp.€39„40),€potentially€enabling€them€toÐ ° Ðeat€meat€more€regularly.€€One€M.P.€for€Lincoln€helped€tenants€byÐ xÈ Ðrenting€out€small€allotments€to€keep€animals€on.€€The€1867„68Ð @ ÐCommission€reported€that€in€Yorkshire€some€laborers€benefitedÐ X Ðfrom€having€"cow€gates"€to€pasture€cows€in€lanes€nearby.׃:×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú54Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀РР ÐAllotments€often€made€a€major€difference€in€the€diets€of€EnglishÐ ˜è Ðagricultural€laborers€fortunate€enough€to€have€them.€€These€wereÐ ` ° Ðunquestionably€more€important€in€their€lives€than€the€patches€ofÐ ( x Ðland€slaveowners€allowed€many€American€slaves€to€cultivate.€Ð ð @ ÐUnlike€for€the€farmworkers,€masters€and€mistresses€automaticallyÐ ¸   Ðgave€to€the€slaves€the€standard€rations,€which€was€most€of€whatÐ € Ð  Ðthey€ate,€excepting€some€in€task€system€areas,€unlike€in€EnglandÐ H ˜  Ðunless€the€worker€was€a€live„in€farm€servant.Ð `  ÐÌòòà@ìàComparing€the€Diets€of€English€Paupers,€Slaves,€and€TheirˆÐ  ð  ÐGovernment's€ArmyóóÐ h¸  ÐÌà  àIndicating€that€many€southern€English€agricultural€workersÐ øH  Ðarguably€had€a€diet€worse€than€that€of€many€slaves,€consider€thisÐ À Ðcomparison€between€the€food€they€received€and€what€theirÐ ˆØ Ðrespective€governments€gave€to€lowly€privates€in€their€armies.€Ð P  ÐThe€laborers€per€family€on€parish€relief€received€less€than€whatÐ h Ðone€soldier€in€the€Royal€Army€did,€but€at€least€some€slavesÐ à0 Ðòòóóreceived€rations€that€compared€favorably€to€the€American€army's.€Ð ¨ø ÐAs€Cobbett€vehemently€protested:€€Ð pÀ ÐÌà8  àThe€base€wretches€know€well,€that€the€common€foot„Ð P Ðsoldier€now€receives€more€pay€per€week€(7òòs.óó€7òòd.óó)Ð È Ðexclusive€of€òòclothing,€firing,€candle,óó€and€òòlodging;óóÐ à Ð...€[and]€more€òòto€go€down€his€own€single€throat,óó€thanÐ X¨ Ðthe€overseers€and€magistrates€allow€[in€parish€relief]Ð  p Ðto€òòa€working€man,€his€wifeóó€and€òòthree€childrenóó.׃;x×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú55Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ðè8Ð Ð  ÐÌAs€a€growing€population€raised€unemployment€rates€and€enclosureÐ xÈ! Ðeliminated€agriculture's€subsistence€economy,€many€laborers,Ð @" Ðprobably€a€solid€majority€in€the€south,€were€on€parish€relief€forÐ  X# Ðextended€periods€during€their€lives,€especially€during€theÐ Ð $ Ðwinter.׃<×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú56Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Since€arable€agriculture€was€a€highly€seasonalÐ ˜!è% Ðbusiness,€many€more€laborers€were€out€of€work€in€winter€than€inÐ ° Ðsummer,€causing€many€to€depend€on€parish€relief€or€at€variousÐ xÈ Ðparish€make„work€jobs€such€as€stonebreaking€on€the€highways€orÐ @ Ðflint€gathering€in€the€fields.€€The€disproportion€between€atÐ X Ðleast€some€slaves€and€the€U.S.€Army's€rations€for€privatesÐ Ð  Ðappears€smaller€than€the€ratio€between€farm€laborers€on€parishÐ ˜è Ðrelief€and€average€English€soldiers.€€Olmsted€cited€anÐ ` ° Ðadvertisement€in€the€òòRichmond€Enquireróó€which€listed€one€and€aÐ ( x Ðquarter€pounds€of€beef€and€one€and€three„sixteenths€pounds€ofÐ ð @ Ðbread--presumably€hardtack--as€the€daily€ration,€with€anÐ ¸   Ðadditional€eight€quarts€of€beans,€two€quarts€of€salt,€four€poundsÐ € Ð  Ðof€coffee,€and€eight€pounds€of€sugar€distributed€out€over€eachÐ H ˜  Ðhundred€days.€€In€contrast,€the€òòDaily€Georgianóó€noted€the€rationsÐ `  Ðfor€slaves€being€hired€for€a€year€to€work€on€a€canal.€€Each€wasÐ Ø(  Ðto€receive€"three€and€a€half€pounds€of€pork€or€bacon,€and€tenÐ  ð  Ðquarts€of€gourd€seed€corn€per€week."€€At€least€some€masters€wouldÐ h¸  Ðbeat€this€ration€of€pork:€€Planter€Barrow€Bennet€gave€"weakly"€"4Ð 0€  Ðpound€&€5€pound€of€meat€to€evry€thing€that€goes€in€the€field--2Ð øH  Ðpound€over€4€years€€1€1/2€between€15€months€and€4€yearsÐ À Ðold--Clear€good€meat."׃=°×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú57Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Evidently,€the€disproportion€wasÐ ˆØ Ðgreater€between€what€the€British€government€gave€its€privates€andÐ P  Ðits€laborers€in€parish€relief€(admittedly,€those€not€working)€andÐ h Ðwhat€the€American€government€gave€its€soldiers€and€a€number€ofÐ à0 Ðslaveowners€gave€their€slaves.Ð ¨ø ÐÌòòà  àBetter€Bread€Versus€Little€Meat?:€€The€Slave€VersusÐ 8ˆ ÐFarmworker€DietóóÐ P ÐÌà  àMany€bondsmen€in€America€had€arguably€better€diets€than€manyÐ à Ðfarmworkers€in€England,€at€least€when€living€south€of€Caird'sÐ X¨ Ðwage€line.€€Three€pounds€of€pork€or€bacon€routinely€appeared€inÐ  p Ðthe€diet€of€most€adult€slaves,€while€many€southern€EnglishÐ è8 Ðagricultural€workers,€once€both€population€growth€and€enclosuresÐ °  Ðtook€off,€had€meat€generally€eliminated€from€their€diets€duringÐ xÈ! Ðthe€period€c.€1780„1840.€€On€the€other€hand,€the€grain€the€slavesÐ @" Ðate€often€was€coarser,€and€(perhaps)€more€nutritionally€suspect.€Ð  X# ÐWheat€bread,€often€made€by€a€baker,€which€most€southern€farmÐ Ð $ Ðworkers€mainly€subsisted€upon,€was€clearly€a€more€refined€andÐ ˜!è% Ðtasty€product€than€maize€crudely€pounded€and€cooked€in€the€formsÐ `"°& Ðof€hoecake€and€johnnycake.€€Reflecting€how€the€laborers€had€lostÐ (#x' Ðmeat,€but€had€a€much€finer€grain€product€compared€to€the€slaves,Ð ð#@( ÐJ.€Boucher,€vicar€of€Epsom,€observed€in€late€1800:€€"Our€PoorÐ ¸$ ) Ðlive€not€only€on€the€finest€wheaten€bread,€but€almost€on€breadÐ €%Ð * Ðalone."׃>×Ý ƒÿÿÝòòÚ  Ú58Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€It€remains€unclear€who€ate€more€vegetables.€€In€thisÐ ° Ðregard,€those€laborers€fortunate€enough€to€have€allotments--aÐ xÈ Ðserious€possibility€only€towards€the€end€of€the€period€beingÐ @ Ðsurveyed€here--probably€were€better€off€than€a€majority€of€theÐ X Ðslaves,€many€of€whom€lived€almost€exclusively€on€the€"standardÐ Ð  Ðrations"€of€corn€and€pork.€€Most€farmworkers€were€not€this€lucky,Ð ˜è Ðand€the€stories€of€privation€noted€above€€(pp.€30„32)€suggestÐ ` ° Ðwhat€vegetables€they€had€were€limited€to€potatoes.€€RegionalÐ ( x Ðvariations€within€England€complicate€this€picture:€€The€minorityÐ ð @ Ðof€farmworkers€fortunate€enough€to€live€in€the€north€near€whereÐ ¸   Ðcompetition€for€labor€by€industry€and€mining€pushed€up€theirÐ € Ð  Ðwages€were€certainly€better€off€materially€than€most€AmericanÐ H ˜  Ðslaves,€even€before€considering€any€more€ethereal€quality€of€lifeÐ `  Ðcriteria.€€As€for€American€regional€variations,€the€Border€StatesÐ Ø(  Ðsuch€as€Virginia€or€Kentucky€may€have€treated€their€slavesÐ  ð  Ðbetter.€€But€the€difference€may€have€been€been€more€in€the€formÐ h¸  Ðof€less€brutal€treatment€than€in€better€food,€since€FrederickÐ 0€  ÐDouglass,€John€Brown,€and€Charles€Ball€in€Maryland€and€VirginiaÐ øH  Ðdescribe€rations€similar€to€the€evidence€encountered€fromÐ À Ðelsewhere€in€the€South.€€(Regional€variations